Bio 2 Exam 3
Ch. 32
Body Plans
Small, unicellular organisms get nutrients through diffusion
Cell size is constrained by the surface area to volume ratio
As cells get larger, this ratio decreases (not good)
Larger organisms don't have larger cells; they have more cells (multicellular)
Must provide nutrients and oxygen to all cells with specialized cells, organs, and organ systems
Larger animals have lesser area to volume ratio, less diffusion
Bioenergetics
Energy from nutrients is used in the animal body to fuel anabolic reactions
Nutrients are always converted to ATP
Basal metabolic rate
The average amount of energy used by an organism in a non-active state
Endothermic animals maintain their own temps
Ectothermal relize on the environment for temperature
Excess energy is given off as heat
Smaller endothermic organisms have a higher BMR than larger ones
Compensates heat lost from large surface area
Active animals have a higher BMR than inactive ones
Body Planes and Cavities
The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left
Parasigital is not exactly in the middle
The midsagittal plane divides exactly in the middle
Midian
The frontal plane separates the front from the back
Also coronal plane
The transverse plane divides into upper and lower portions
Also horizontal plane
Also cross section
If the transverse cut is at an angle, called an oblique plane
Types of multicellular animal tissues
4 types
Epithelial
Lines cavities, open spaces, surfaces
Can secrete things
Classified by the number of layers and the shape of the cell
Single layer = simple, multiple layers = stratified
Simple squamous
Looks flat, one layer of cells
Stratified squamous
Layered
Cuboidal
Secrets from the gland
Simple columnar
Seen as collumes
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Found in the respiratory trace
Helps movement of mucus and trapped particles
Will also see goblet cells
Also produces mucus
Transitional
Round and simple, but looks stratified
Only in urinary bladder
Helps with the stretch response
The urge to pee
Connective tissues
Connects tissues together, providing support, ligaments, tendons, blood, and bone
Misoderm
Consists of cells (fibroblasts) embedded in a non-cellular matrix
Will produce something
Matrix usually composed of a ground substance
Ground substance usually contains a combination of collagen, elastic or reticular fibers
Cartilage
Fatal bones are mostly cartilage
Bone
Any osteo prefix
Will break down if low on calcium
Adipose
Fat
Energy storage
Blood
White blood cells help with the immune response
Muscles
Generate movement
Also connective tissue
3 kinds
Skeletal - voluntary, striated
Smooth - involuntary, no striation
Can contract in all directions
In organs, the blood supply
Cardiac - involuntary
Special structures, intercalated disks, help pass a signal to contract
heart
Actin and myosin
Both proteins that make up the muscle
Neurons
Generate and send electrical signals
The nerve cell
Neuroglia (glia)
Supportive cells
Oligodendrocyte
Has myelin wrapped around to insulate
Action potential
Generate and transmit electrical impulses
Dendrites receive impulses
Axons send out signals
Action potential
To increase the speed of the message (velocity of the action potential), myelin can be used
In the brain, myelin gives the white color to the white matter
Homeostasis / Thermoregulation
Aims to keep internal conditions around the set point
If conditions stray too far from the set point, homeostatic mechanisms kick in
The set point can potentially change over time (alteration), but homeostasis will still work toward the set point
Acclimatization
Changes in one organ system to maintain a set point in another organ system
Altitude will cause more blood cells to be produced
Negative feedback loop
Counteracts any internal changes (reverse the direction of the change)
Most biological systems are negative
Temp, glucose, pH, blood calcium
Positive feedback loop
Maintains and potentially strengthens the response to a stimulus
Birth (releases oxytocin to continue uterine contractions)
Must maintain a relatively constant internal temp to keep enzymes efficient and avoid denaturation
Thermoregulatory control by the hypothalamus
Endotherm vs ectotherm
Temperature is maintained in several different ways
Radiation
Sun
Emission of electromagnetic heat waves
Convection
Currents of air that remove heat as air passes over it
Conduction
Heat transfers through surfaces through direct contact
Evaporation
Removal of heat with a liquid
Herbivors
Plant-based food
Carnivores
Eat other animals
Obligate carnivores
Rely entirely on animal flesh
Facultative carnivores
Also eat non-animal food, but mostly animals
Omnivores
Both plants and animals
Digestive Tracts
Incomplete
Single opening
Gastrovascular cavity
Ex. Planarian
Food enters through the mouth and the muscular pharynx
Waste also exists through the mouth and the muscular pharynx
Lacks specialized parts
Complete
Two openings
Alimentary canal
Ex. Earthworms
Food enters through the mouth
Waste exits through the anus
VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Monogastic
Humans and Herbivores
Like a tube
Humans’ most absorbed in the small intestine
Rabbits digest twice
Birds
Crop stores food
2 stomachs
Proventriculus (enzymes)
chemical
Gizzard (grinding)
mechanical
Ruminants
Goats
4 stomachs
Rumen and reticulum
Contain prokaryotes and protists to digest cellulose fiber
Cud is regurgitated, chewed, and swallowed in the third stomach, the omasum
Removes water
Cud then passes into the abomasum
Most similar to human stomachs
Enzymes produced by the animal
Adaptations to Diet
Dentition differs with the mode of nutrition
Omnivores
Variety of specializations
Accommodate both vegetision and meat
Herbivores
Incisors for clipping
Premolars and molars for grinding
Carnivores
Pointed incisors and enlarged canines
Shear off pieces small enough to swallow
Quadrant of human teeth
Incisors
2
Canines
1
Pre-molars
2
Molars
3
Human Digestive Tract
Complete (alimentary canal)
Part of a tube within a tube body plan
Begins with a mouth and ends in an anus
Digestion entirely extracellular
Digestive enzymes are secreted by
Wall of the digestive tract
By nearby glands (saliva)
Mouth
3 major pairs of salivary glands
Saliva contains salivary amylase
Salivary amylase initiates starch digestion
Tongue is composed of striated muscle
Mixes chewed food with saliva
Form the mixture into a bolus
Pharynx
Where the digestive and respiratory passages come together
The soft palate closes off the nasopharynx
Epiglottis
Covers opening into the trachea
Keeps food from the air passages
Stomage
The wall has deep folds
Rugae
Folds that help with expansion
Maximum 1 liter
The epithelial lining of the stomach has millions of gastric pits, which drain gastic glands
Pepsin is a hydrolytic enzyme that acts on proteins to produce peptides
Chyme
Food mixing with gastric juices
Justin between stomach and small intestine controlled by a sphincter
When spincter relaxes, small quantity of chyme passes into small intestin
Small Intestine
First segment is duodenum
Chyme from stomach enters
Mixes with secretions from liver and pancreas
Pancreas
Exocrine gland
Produces pancreatic juice and digestive enzymes into the duodenum
Pancreatic amylase digests starch into maltose
Trypsin digests protein into peptides
Lipase digests fat droplets into glycerol and fatty acids
Epithelial cells of the intestine also produce enzymes
Complete digestion of peptides and sugars
Liver
Produce Bile, stored in the gallbladder
Bile contains bile salts, which break up fat into fat droplets via emusifcation
Helps maintain glucose concentration in blood by converting excess into glycogen
Pyloic
Pyloris = gatekeeper
Absorbtion
Mucous membrane of small intestine
Has ridges and furrows that give it a corrugated surface
Willi ar eridges on the surface, which contain even smaller ridges, microvilli
Increases absorptive area
Each villus contains blood capillaries and a lymphatic capillary (lacteal)
Protein Digestion
In the duodenum, trypsin, elastase, and chymotrypsin act on peptides, reducing them to smaller peptides
Bile helps with lipid digestion
Large Intestine
Includes cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal
Larger in diameter, shorter in length
Absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins
Dehydrates feces
The cecum has a small projection
Appendix
Colon subdivided into the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon
Opening to the anal canal
Anus for elimination
Nutrition: Carbohydrates
Sugars, starch, fibers
Fruits, vegetables, milk, honey (sugars)
Monocaccharides
Glucose
Fructose
Disaccharides
Lactose
Sucrose (table sugar)
All sugars are converted to glucose
Preferred direct energy source in cells
Plants store glucose as starch
Animals store glucose as glycogen
Fiber
Important for bulking stool
Includes undigestible carbohydrates derived from plants
Protiens
20 different types of amino acids
Adults need 8 children need 9
Essential
Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Tryptopphan
Lysine
Lipids
Fat, oils, and cholesterol
Essential storage and activity of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
Provides energy
Saturated fats (solud at room temp
Usually from animals
Vitamins
Organic compounds the body is unable to produces but required for metabolic purposes
Obtained externally
Water or fat soluble
Some vitamin deciciencens can have dramatic effect on health
Antioxidants
Cellular metabolism generates free radicals that carry extra electron
Vitamin C, E, and A believed to defend body against free radicals
Water soluble
B and C
Fat soluble
A, D, E, K
Osmoregulation
Process of maintenance of salt and water balance (osmotic balance across membranes within body fluids
Both electrolytes and non-electrolytes contribute
Important ions
Cations: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium
Anions: chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, and phosphate
Cells in a hypertonic environment shrink due to loss of water
In a hypotonic environment, a cell will swell with water intake
Osmoregulators
Most marine organism must live in specific environments
Evolved to adapt to a variety of environments
Osmoconformers
The internal environment is osmotic relation to external environment
Restricted to certain environments, spends less energy on osmoregulation
Body Fluid Regulation
Water tends to move into the region with the lowest water concentration
Marine environment
High concentration of dissolved salts
Promote the osmotic loss of water
Gain ions by drinking water
Marine invertebrates are normally isotonic to seawater
Blood of cartilaginous fish contains enough urea to match the tonicity of seawater
Freshwater environment
Tends to promote the gain of water by osmosis
Loss of ions as excess water is excreted
Human Kidneys
Located on either side of the vertebral column, just below the diaphragm
Each is connected to the ureter
Conducts urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder
Urine voided through the urethra
Tube between the bladder and the exit
Nephrons
Each kidney is composed of many tubular nephrons
Functional part of the kidney
About a million per kidney
Each nephron is composed of several parts
Glomerular capsule
Bowmans capsule
Glomerulus
The capillaries/blood supply
+ capsule = renal corpuscle
Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of the nephron
Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tube
Collecting duct
Gose to ureter
Filters water and salts through these tubes
Renal cortex
Outer region
Granular appearance
Renal medulla
Cone-shaped renal pyramids
Collection of the collecting ducts
Drains into the minor calyx
Those drain into the major calyx
Multiple drains into the renal pelvis
Renal pelvis
Hollow-chamered innermost part of the kidney
Leads to the ureter
Renal pelvis, artery, and vein at hylum of the kidney
Hylum = input/output section
Urine Formation
Urinary production requires 3 distinct processes
Glomerular filtration in glomerular capsule
Tubular reasbsorption at the proximal convoluted tubule
Water is reabsorbed
Tubular secretion at the distal convoluted tubule
Sodium and chloride leave henly
Excretion of hypertonic urine
Dependent upon the reabsorption of water
Absorbed from
Loop of the nephron
Collecting ducts
Osmotic gradient within the renal medulla causes water to leave the descending limb along its entire length
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Plant a role in water reabsorption
Released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
Invertebrates
Some unicellular organisms excrete wastes by exocytosis
Excretory organs
Aquatice animals
Invertebrates
Most are isotonic with the water they live in
Osmoconformers
Body fishes
Body fluids with only a moderate amount of salt
Osmoregulators
Some manage to adjust to both salt and fresh water (salmon), but most cannot
Hemodialysis
Clinical purification of blood
Takes away salts, urea
Nitrogenous waste products
Catabolism of amino acids and nucleic acids results in ammonia
Urea causes a loss of much water per unit of nitrogen
Mammals and amphibians
Must drink lots of water
Uric acid requires much less water per unit of nitrogen excreted
Reptiles, birds, arthropods
Allows invasion of drier habitats far from standing water
Nerves and Nervous System
Invertebrate
Hydras
Nerve is composed of neurons in contact with one another
Also in contact with contractile epitheliomuscular cells
Helps with motion
Planarians
Ladder-like nervous system
Cephalization - concentration of ganglia and sensory receptors in the head
Central nervous system
Annelids, Arthopods, and Mullusks
Complex
True nervous system
Human Nervous System
Division of Nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS)
Includes brain and spinal cord
Lies in the midline of the body
Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)
Contains cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Gather info from sensors and conduct decisions to effectors
Lies outside the CNS
Nervous system has 3 specific functions
Receiving sensory input
Preforming integration
Generating moter output
Nervous Tissue
Neurons
Also contains nucleus and mitochondria
Cell body contains nucleus
Dendrites receive signals from sensory receptors
Axon conducts nerve impulse
Covered by myelin sheath
Any long axon called nerve fiber
Types of neurons
Motor neurons
Efferent = starts in the brain, goes into nervous system to cause response
Accept nerve impulses from the CNS
Transmit them to muscular or glands
Multipolar
Sensory neurons
Afferent = starts in nervous system, goes into brain to cause response
Accepts impulses from sensory receptors
Transmits to CNS
Bipolar
psudounipolar
Interneurons
Convey nerve impulses between various parts of the CNS
Concetion of neurons (seonsory to sensory, sensory to motor, motor to moter)
Unipolar
Bipolar
Glial Cells
Support, protect and nourish neurons
Outnumber neurons (10 to 1) in the brain
Fulfill many vital function
Most brain tumer caused by mutation of glia
In CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Form myelin sheath around axons
Astrocytes
Provides nutrients and structural support
Ependymal cells
Produce cerebrospinal fluid that cushions naurns
Link up with blood suply
Microglia
Scavenge pathogens and dead cells
In PNS
Schwann cells
Forms the myelin sheath
Satellite cells
Provide nutrients and structural support to neurons
Nerve communication through an action potential
An electrical signal that passes from nerve to nerve
Turns on functions in the body
CNS: Brain and Spinal Cord
Wrapped around 3 protective layers (Meninges)
Spaces between meninges are filled with cerebrospinal fluid - subarachnoid space (space between arachnoid and pia mater)
Fluid is continuous with that of the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain
Dura matter (outermost)
Tough matter mother
Arachnoid mater (middle)
Pia mater (inermost)
Thinnest
Spinal Cord
2 main functions
Center for many reflux actions
Reflux arch
Means of communication between brain and spinal nerves
Efferent (mortor response)
Mostly from the back
Afferent (sensory to brain)
Composed of gray matter and white matter
Cell bodies and short unmyelinated fibers give the gay matter its colro
Myelinated long fibers of internaurons running in tracts give white matter its color
Reflux arch
Spinal reflex
Stretch sense
The Brain
Cerebrum is the largest portion of the human brain
Commnicates with and coordinates the activities of the other parts of the brain
Longitudinal fissure divides into left and right cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral cortex
Thin but highly convoluted outer layer of gray matter
Make up the gyri (squiggles of brain)
Covers cerebral hemispheres
Contains motor areas and sensory areas as well as association areas
Frontal
motor
Personality
Planing
Parietal
Sesory
Associastion
Oxipital
Vision
Temporal
Hearing
Smell (olfation)
Emotions / memory
Diencephalon (structures end in “thalamus”)
Region encirling third ventricle
Consists of hypothalamus and thalamus
Hypothalamus controls endocrine system via pituitary; thermostat
Hormones (vasopressin/antidioretic - water retention) (oxitosin - positive feedback loops)
Thalamus make of 2 masses of gray matter located in sides and roof of the third ventricle
Gateway to and from cortex
Relay ceter
Pineal gland
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement
Dreaming
Located in diencephalon
Secretes meletonin
Cerebellum
Motor refinement
Eyes, ears, joints, muscles
Balance and coordination
Sends motor impulses out the brain stem to the skeletal muscles
Awareness of body in space
Brain stem = midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
Midbrain
Acts as a relay station for tracts passing between cerebrum and spinal cord / cerebellum
Pons
Helps regulate breathing and head movements, heartrate
Not regulation just action
Medulla oblongata
Reflex for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccups, and swallowing
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic System
Cranial nerves
12 pairs, head and neck
spinal nerves
31 pairs
Gathers info form soncors and conduct decisions to effectors
Controls skeletal muscles
Conscious activity
Autonomomic system
Controls smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, and glands
Usually unaware of actions
2 divisions
Sympathetic
Fight or flight
Accelerates heartbeat and dilates bronchi
Parasympathetic
Promotes interal responses associated with relaxed state
Promotes digestion and slows heartbeat
Neurodegenerateive disorders
Alzheimers
Accelerated brain cell death
Parkinsons
Cell death of motor parts of brain
Resporation
Gas Exchange Bwteen alveoli an blood
Gas diffution happens at aqueous respitory epithelial cells (lines respiratory organs)
Numesights (cells of alvioli) in lungs
Type 1 = gas exchange
Type 2 = produces surfactat
Diffusion is passive, divine only by the difference in O2 and CO2 concentration on the 2 sides of membranes and their relative solubility in the plasma membrane
Trachea to bronchi to alvioli
If High O2 in Alveoli into blood (capilaries)
If High CO2 in blood into Alveoli
Opposite occues in the tissue (more O2 in blood, put into organ / muscle)
Gases diffse directly into unicellualr organisms
Dircely into membrane
bacteria
Small organisms can rely on direct diffusion of gases (skin)
Most mulicellular animals require system adaptations to enhance gas exchange
Amphibians across skin as well as lungs
Insects have extensive tracheal system
Fish use gills
Mammals use lung syststm
Gills
Cutainous design
Increase surface area (lots of folds)
Move water into mouth, through gills, and out of fish through open operculum / gill cover
Lungs
Gills were replaces in terrestrial animals
Minimizes evaporation by moving air through branched tubular passage
Convered in mucus to prevent direct contact o lung tissue with air
Psudostratifated cilliated lumnar with Goblet cells (goblet makes mucus)
Larynx = voice box
Bifurcates into the right and left bronchi, which enter each lungand further subdivide into bronchioles
Alveoli are surrounded by an extensive capillary network
During inhalation, thoracic volume increases through contraction of 2 muscle sets
Contraction of the external intercostal muscle expands the rib cage
Diaphram is primary muscle of inspiration (breathing in), expnads the volume of thorax and lungs
Produces negative pressure which draws air into lungs
Lung structure and function
Tidal volume
Volume of air moving in and out of lungs in a person at rest
Vital capacity
Maximum amount of air that can be expired after a forceful inspiration
Hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains
Eachchain is associated with a heme group
Eachheme group has a central iron atom that can bind a molecule of O2
Hemoglobin loads up oxygen in the lungs, forming oxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin’s affinity for O2, is affected by pH and temp
pH effect is known as the Bohr shift
Increased CO2 in blood increases H+
Lower pH reduces affinity for O2
Facilitates oxygen unloading in the tissue
If there is high leves of CO2, O2 is needed, hemoglobin will let go of O2
Increasing temp has similar effect
Tranportation of Carbon Dioxide
Not the same as O2
About 8% of CO2 in blood dissovles into plasma
20% of CO2 in blood is bound to hemoglobin
Remaining 72% diffuses into red blood cells and becomes bicarbonate
Hypoventilation
Insufficiency breathing blood has abnormally high PCO2
Hyperventilation
Excessive breathing, blood has abnormally low PCO2
Naurons are sinsititve to blood PCO2
Brain has chemorecepters that know when levels are off
A rise in PCO2 will cause increased production of carbonic acid, lowering blood pH
Stimulates chemosensitive neurons in the aortic and carotid bodies
Sends impulses to repirtory control center to increase rate of breathing
Brain also contains central chemoreceptors that are sensitive to change the pH of cerebrospinal fluid
Chemorepeptors detects chemicals
Carotid body
Baroreceptor detects blood pressure
Carotid sinus
All this will tell the blood vessles to expand or contract
Respiratory diseases
Chronic obstructive pulonarry disease (COPD)
Refers to any disorder that obstructs airflow on a long-term basis
Asthma
Allergen triggers that release histamine, causing intense constriction of the bronchi and sometimes suffocation
Emphysema
Alveolar walls break down and the lung exhibits larger but fewer alveoli
Lungs become less elastic
80% - 90% of deaths are caused by cigarette smoking
Lung cancer
Highest death rate of cancer
Follows or accopanies COPD
Spreads so rapidly that it usually invades other organs by time of diagnoses
Chance of recovery is poor, only 3% surviving for 5 years after diagnosis
Black spots on lungs = anthracotic pigment
Eats dust
More in industrial and polluted places
As elevation increases, partial pressure decreases
Lungs of birds have unidirectional flow
Invertebraate Circulatory system
Sponges, cnidarians, and nematodes lack separate circulatory system
Sponges circulate water using many incurrent pores and 1 excurrent pore
Hydra circulate water through a gastrovasular cavity (also for digestion)
Nematodes are thin enough that digestive tract can also be used as circulatory system
Open circulatory system
No distinction between circulating and extracellular fluid
Fluid calle hemolymph
Closed circulatory system
Discit circulatory fluid enclosed in blood vessels and transported away frrom and back to heart
Analids have closed circulatory system
Fishes
Evolved to true chamber-pump heart
2 chamber heart
Blood is pumped through gills, then to rest of body
Amphibians
Advent of lungs required a second pumping circut or double circulation
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the ehart and lungs
Systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the reast of the body
3 chambered heart
Runs the risk of mixing oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Still better than 2 chambered heart
Reptile heart
3 chambered heart (septated)
2 atria and 2 ventricles
Incomplete separation of ventricles
Vertebrate
Mammals, birds, and crocidilians
4 chambered heart
2 separate atria and 2 separated ventricles
Right atrium recives deoxygenated blood from vena cava from body and delivers to the right ventricle through atrioventricular valve (tricuspid), is pumped into lungs
Superior vena cava blood from head and neck
Inferior vena cave blood from rest of body
Left atrium receives oxgenated blood from lungs and delivers to the left ventricle through left atrioventriclular valve (mitral), then pumped to rest of body out of aorta
Pulmonary trunk takes blood to lungs
2 superior and 2 inferior veins
Blood
Connective tissue
Extracellular matric - plasma
Cells - RBCs, WBCs, platelets
Functions of circulating blood
Transportation
Oxygen
hormones
Regulation
Hormones (blood pressure)
Protection
White blood cells
Platelets (clotting)
Plasma
92% water
Contains solutes
Nutrients, wastes, and hormones
Ions
Protains
Albumin
Fibrinogen
If removed, plasma called serum
Red blood cells (Erythocytes)
About 5 million per microliter
Hematocrit is the fraction of the total blood volume occupied by red blood cells
Lack muclei
Live for 120 days
Spleen is graveyard for red blood cells
RBCs of vertebrates contain hemoglobin (is recycled for new cells)
Pigment that binds and transports oxygen
White blood cells (Leukocytes)
Less than 1% of blood cells
Larger than red cells and have nuclei
Cna migrate out of capillaries into tissue fluid
Types
Granular
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Agranular
Monocytes and lymphocytes
Platelets
Cell fragments that pinch off from larger cells in the bone marrow
Forms blood clots
Characteristics of Blood Vessels
Blood leaves the heart through the arteries
Takes blood away from the heart
Arterioles are the finest microscopic branches of the arterial tree
Blood enters arterioles and enters capillaries (gas exchange)
Blood is collected into venules, which lead to larger vessels, the veins
Carries blood back to the heart
4 tissue layers
Endothelium, elastic fibers, smooth muscle, and connective tissue
Walls too thick for the exchange of materials across the wall
Callillaries are composed of only a single layer of endothelial cells
Allow rapid exchange of gases and metabolites between blood and body cells
Veins have valves
Prevents backflow
Lymphatic system
Water and solutes in the blood plasma filter through wall of capilaries to form interstitial tissue fluid
Fluid not retired to capillaries is retired to circulation by lymphatic system
Lymph reuters to circulation in the subclavian vain
Mammalian heat
2 pairs of valves
Atrioventricular valves (AV)
Maintain undirectional blood flow between atria and ventricles
Tricuspid valve = right side
Bicuspid / mitral valve = left side
Samilunar valves
Ensures one-way flow out of the ventricles to the vessels
The pulmonary valve is located at the exit of the right ventricle
The aortic valve is located at the exit of the left ventricle
Cardiac Cycle
Valves open and close as the heart goes through the cardiac cycle
Ventricles relaxed and filled (diastole)
Ventricles contracted and pumped (systole)
“Lub-dub” sound with a stethoscope
Lub - AV valves closing
Dub - closing of semilunar valves
Heart contains “self-excitable” autorhythmic fibers
Most important is the sinoatrial (SA) node
Located in wall of right atrium
Acts as pacemaker
Autonomic nervous system can modulate rate
Normal heart rate = 60-100 bpm
Electrical activity can be recorded on an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
Cardiovascular disease
Leading cause of death in US
Atherosclerosis
Accumilation of fatty material within arteries
Impedes blood flow
Ateriosclerosis
Arterial hardening due to calcium deposition
Likely to have both if heart is bad
Effects blood pressure
Blood flow and blood pressure
Measured as systole / diastole
Systole = contraction
Diastole = relaxation
Increased with blood volume
Blood volume is regulated by 4 hormones
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Increases urine output
Aldosterone - encourages kidney to exrete potassium and retain sodium
Atrial natriuetic hormone - increase sodium excretion and decrease blood pressure
Nitric oxide (NO) - vasodialator
120 / 80 is normal
Muscoskelatal system purpose
Contral movement
Support
Maintain upright position
Allow movement
Body transport
Manipulate objects
Protect
Hydrostatic
Ford by a fluid-filled compartment within body, coelom
Compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid, supports the other organs of the organism
Found in soft-bodied animal such as sea anemones, earthworms, CNidariam and other invertebrates
Exoskelteon
Endoskeleton
Heard mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organism
Provides support, protects internal organs, allows for movement trough contraction of muscles attached to bones
Human Axial skeleton
Bones of the skull, ossicles of middle ear (how we hear), hyoid bone (supports larynx), vertebral column, and rib cage
Cranial bones, including frontal, parietal, and sphenoid bones, cover the top of head
Facial bones of the skull form the face and provide cavities for the eyes, nose, and mouth
Vissucrianum = bones of the face (interact with organs more, lower in the face)
Neurocranium (bones surrounds the brain)
Vertebral column
7 cervical vertebrae (C1-C7)
Lordosis curve
12 thoracic vertebrae (Th1-12)
Kyphosis curve
5 lumbar vertebrae (L1-5)
Lordosis curve
The os sacrum and the coccyx
Spinal curves increase the strength and flexibility of the spine
Thoracic cage
The thoracic cage/rib cage protects the heart and lungs
Appendicular skeleton
Bones of the Appendages
Upper limb
Humorous (arm/bracium)
Forearm
Anabraium (humerous / unla)
8 Carpal bones / wrist
5 metacarpals (palm)
14 phalanges (fingers)
Pelvic girdle
Females are lighter, wider, shallower, and have a broader angle of the subpubic bone
Lower limbs
Thigh (femur)
Kneecap (patella)
Sesamoid bone = seed-like
Also in thumbs
Leg (tibia and fibula)
Ankle (tarsals)
Foot (metatarsals and phalanges)
Types of bones
Long bone
Covered by articular cartilage at either end
Contains bone marrow (sits in the medullary cavity)
Longer than wide (humerus, femur, etc.)
Shaft with 2 ends
Mostly compact
Bones of limbs
Short bones
Cube-like
Mostly spongy
Seesamoid - bones embedded in a tendon
Patella
Flat bone
Flat in appearance
Spongy bone embedded within a parallel layer of thin compact bone
Skull bones (frontal, occipital, etc.)
Also scapula
Irregular bone
Vertebra and hip bone
Complicated shapes
Mostly spongy with a thin covering of compact bone
Sphenoid bone (nasal)
Compact bone
Elongated cylingers parallel to bone's long axis
Concentric rings (lamella)
Unidirectional collagen fibers along long axis
Adjacent lamella have collagen in opposite direction
Central (haversian) canal (core of osteon)
Blood vessels and NT
Perpendicular canals (perforating or volkmanns)
Blood supply
Lacunae (cavities containing osteocytes)
Canaliculi (connect lacunae each other and central canal)
Spongy Bone
Trabecule (needle like flat pieces)
Trabeculae appear less organized than structure of compact bone
No osteon
Orgaization is based on line of stress
Lamella and osteocytes are irregularly organized
Inreamembranous ossification
Mostly for flat bones
Tissues are being osstrifid
The sheet of membrane first
Ossification center forms in fibrous connective tissue
Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts
Bone matrix is secreted into the membrane
Osteoblasts secrete osteoid
Woven bone and periosteum are formed
A network of trabeculae encloses local blood vessels
Exterior mesenchyme differentiates into periosteum
Trabeculae thicken and form born collar
Replaced by lamellar bone
Spongy bone persists to form red marrow
Endohondral Ossification
Process of bone development from hyaline cartilage
Periosteum is connective tissue on the outside of bone, acts as an interface between bone, blood vessels, tendons, and ligaments
Cartilage and bone are used as patterns for bone construction
Primary ossifcation center at the center of the hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is broken down during ossification
Process prior to ossification
Perichondrium becomes infiltrated by a blood vessel
Becomes periosteum
Underlying mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts
Muscles onto bone, through tendon, periosteum
Ossification
Bone collar forms around hyaline model
Cartilage in center of diaphysis calcifies
Periosteal bud invades internal cavities
Bud brings vessels, NT, lymph tissue, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
Osteoblasts secrete osteoid around remaining hylaline cartilage
Medullary cavity forms
Epiphyses ossify
Fibrous Joints
Bones of these are held together by fibrous connective tissue
Sutures on bones
Fusion of bone as you age
Cartilaginous Joints
Joints in which bones are connected by cartilage
Synchondrosis
Bones joined by hyaline cartilage
Found in epiphyseal plants (growing plates) of growing bones in children
Symphyses
Hyaline cartilage covers the end of the bone but the connection between bones occurs through fibrocartilage
Allows for very little movement
Between vertebra
Between the hip bones (pubic symphyses)
Gomphosis
Around teeth
Synovial Joints
On joints that have space for a synovial cavity in joint
The cavity is filled with synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint
Types of Synovial Joints
Planar
Flat against each other
Vertebra
Carpal bones
Hinge
Elbow (radius and ulna)
Pivot
Rotating movements
Neck joint (1st and 2nd cervical vertebra)
Condyloid
Metacarpophalangeal (nuckles)
Have condaials
Jaw (temporal mandibular) (bicondyloid)
Saddle
At thumb
Between Metacarpal and trapezium
Ball and socket
Shoulder
Hip joint
Circumduction motions
Muscular tissue
Skeletal
Striated
Protein filament chains give an appearance
Attached to bone
Surrounded by a plasma membrane called sarcolemma with cytoplasm called sarcoplasm
Sarcomere
Region from 1 Z line to another
Present in a myofibril (gives appearance)
Smooth
Short and tapered
One plump nucleus
Not striated
Haphazard
Walls of blood vessels and the respiratory passageway (Tunacomidia)
Spherical contraction
Cardiac
Striated
Have intercalated discs that allow for contraction (pumping)
Sliding filament
Helps to shorten the contraction of the muscle
Thin filament is actin
Thick filament is myasin
ATP and muscle contraction
Cross-bridge muscle contraction cycle
Triggered by Ca2 binding to the actin active site
With each contraction cycle, active moves relative to myosin
Excitation-Contraction Coupling in skeletal muscle contraction
The presence of calcium helps
Endocrine system (hormones)
Has to use the blood supply
Cell signaling systems (cell communication)
Communicates through blood
Hormones
Act at a distance
Chemical secreted intor extracellular fluid and carried by blood
Multicellular animals need hormones to help with homeostasis
Travel to cell that has receptor for that hormone
Lipid-derived hormones
Cholesterol based
Estrogen and testosterone
Comes from the cholesterol system
Steroid hormones
Freely pass through plasma membranes
Hydrophobicity allows this
Amino acid-derived hormone
Epinephrin
Catacolomeans (grouping of molecules
Comes from tyrosine (ameno acid)
Meletonin
Comes from tryptophan
Turkey is high in this
Circadian rhythm
Peptide hormones
Growth hormones
Larger
Oxytocin
From cholesterol or amino acids
Nervous System vs Endocrine System
Neuroendocrone System
Nervous system controls through nerves impulse conducted by axons
Edocrine system crotrols through hormones
May have widespread general effects
Responses occur after seconds to days / prolonged, adapts slowly
Hormones
Need specific receptor to work
Receptors change with cellular activity
Found on different cells or limited to small number of specialized cells
Number of receptors can change
Can be found within cell or on plasma membrane
Intracellular Receptors
Lipid derived hormones bind to transport proteins
Once at target, release carrier protein and pass through plasma membrane and bind to target
Lipophillic - cross membrane and bind to intra cellular receptor
Hormonal Regulation
Excretory System
Maintains water balance
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Aldosterone (steroid hormone)
Produes adrenal cortex
Main regulator of water and electrolytes like sodium and potassium
Promotes reabsorbtion of water
Released due to signaling of renin angiotensin system, ADH is released with the function of osmoreseptors
Reproduction System
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Males- maturation of sperm cells
Metabolism
Insulin
Produced by beta cells of pancreas
Lowers blood sugar by increasing cellular uptake and utilaztion by cells
Deficiency results in diabetes mellitus
Glucagon
Antagonist to insulin
Produced by alpha cells of pancreas
Raises blood sugar by targeting liver to break down glycogen
Regulation of metabolism by thyroid hormones
Basal metabolism rate (mound of calories required by body a rest)
Determined by thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
Released by thyroid gland in response to stimulation by TSH
Hypothyroidism = low metabolic rate
Weight gain, sensitive to cold, lethargy
Hyperthyroidism = high metabolic rate
Weight loss, irritability, increased heart rate
Hormonal control of blood calcium
PTH (produced by parathyroid glands)
Released in response to low blood calcium
Activates osteoclasts, which break down bone
Antagonism is Calcitonin (produced by the thyroid gland) (in bonin = osteoblast)
Made by C cells (thyroid gland cells)
The antagonist hormone has the opposite effect on the body
Activates osteoblast activity (builds bones)
Hormonal control of growth
GH (Growth hormone)
Stimulates growth, cell production, cell regeneration
Increases rate of protein synthesis
Is glucose sparing
Regulated by growth hormone releaseing and inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus
Hormonal control of stress
Short ternm stress
Epinephrine for flight or fight from adrenal gland (Adrenal medula)
Long term stress
Cortisol from adrenal gland
Anti-inflammatory
Too much for too long suppresses the immune system
Hypothalamus
intergrt=ates endocrine and nervous systems
Synthesizes and secretes regulatory hormones that control endocrine cells in anterior pituitary
Collection of nuclei (cell bodies of nerons)
Pituitary gland
Known as hypophysis
Hangs by stalks from hypothalamus
2 parts
Anterior pituitar (andenohypophsis)
7 essential hormones
Peptide hormones
Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH) - stimulates adrenal to make cortisol
Melanin - stimulating (MSH) - stimulates dispersion of pigment
Protein
Growth hormone (hGH)
Prolactin (PL) - stimulates mammary glands
Glycoprotein hormones
Thyroid - stimulating (TSH) - acts on thyroid
Luteinizing hormone (LH) - acts on ovaries, testes
Follicle-stimuling hormone (FSH) - development of ovarian follicles, development of sperm
Appears glandular
Not part of brain
Hypothalamus releases neurohormones into anterior, causing anterior to release tropic hormones (work on other endocrine glands)
Posterior pituitary (neurohypoophysis)
2 hormones are produced in hypothalasmus and stored in special cells in posterior pituitary
Antidiuretc hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin
Appears fibrous because contains axons from hypothalamus
Part of brain
Releases ADH and oxytocin
Plasma membrane receptors
amino acid derived hormones and peptides cannot pass through plasma membrane
Hydrophilic - cannot pass membrane, have to bind to receptor on membrane
Bind receptors on the outer surface of plasma membrane and initiates signaling pathway (called second messenger system)