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  1. The Neuron Hypothesis
  • The nervous system is a machine
  • Nervous system composed of billions of neurons
    • Interact at synapses
  • Very little extracellular space in the CNS b/c the cells are packed tightly
  • Glia: supporting cells of the nervous system
    • Glia means glue
  1. Neurons
  • Neurons conduct electrical impulses and carry information as action potentials over LONG distances
    • Amitotic: Once neurons mature they can never divide again
    • High metabolism
    • Produce membrane and cytoplasmic proteins
  • 3 main features:
    • Input region
    • AKA receptive/dendritic region
    • Conducting region
    • Carries action potentials
    • LONG-DISTANCE
    • Secretory region
    • AKA output region
  • Three main regions:
    • Dendrite
    • Input region
    • Never myelinated
    • Don’t conduct action potentials (information being carried)
    • Conducted toward the neuronal cell body
    • Cell body
    • Protein factory
    • Contains the nucleus
    • Most if protein synthesis
    • Nissl substance; derivative of rough ER
    • Axon
    • Extends from cell body
    • At their ends, branch to innervate other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands
  • Trigger zone: site of action potential initiation
  • Axon terminals: secretory regions
    • Form presynaptic portions
    • Release neurotransmitter into the postsynaptic cell

II. Functional Neuronal Classification

  • 3 different types of neurons
    • Sensory (afferent)
    • Motor (efferent)
    • Associative (interneurons)
  • Interneurons: confined to the central nervous system
  • Sensory and afferent neurons found in both central AND peripheral nervous systems

III. Glia

  • 9x as many glial cells in CNS as there are neurons
  • Neuronal and glial cells are from embryo as neuroectodermal cells
  • 3 types of glial cells:
    • Astrocytes
    • Many processes. Looks like a star.
    • Oligodendrocytes
    • Cells with few branches
    • Microglial cells
    • Modified macrophages derived from WBC/monocyte
  • Ependymal cells: supporting cells in CNS
    • NOT glial cells
    • Lines ventricles of brain
    • Responsible for moving cerebrospinal fluid (cilia)
  1. Glial Cell Function
  • Astrocytes: regulate concentration of ions (K+)
    • By pumping ions
    • Regulate concentration of neurotransmitters in ECM
    • Wrapped around capillaries
    • Movement of substances between NS and blood
  • Oligodendrocytes: cells with few branches.
    • Form myelin sheath around axons
    • Insulating
      • Causes fast action of action potentials
    • White matter in CNS
    • Envelope several axons to wrap with myelin
    • Inhibits regeneration in the central nervous system

IV. Supporting Cells of the Peripheral Nervous System

  • Peripheral nervous system has 2 types of supporting cells:
    • Schwann cells
    • Satellite cells
  • Satellite cells: non-myelinating Schwann cell. Surround cell bodies of neurons in ganglia
    • Ganglia: collection of nerve cell bodies
  • Schwann cells: myelin producing cells
    • When myelinating, they envelope a single axon
    • Multiple wrap-arounds to form several layers
    • Clean up debris after nerve damage
    • Support regeneration of nerves
  • Not all axons are myelinated
    • Can still ensheath several axons w/o forming a myelin sheath
    • Similar to astrocytes

V. Neuronal Functional Regions

  • Bodian classification of neurons: functional naming of neurons
    • The greater the stimulus strength, the larger the amplitude of the depolarization
    • If signal in input region is of sufficient amplitude to bring the membrane to threshold at the trigger zone
    • All or none action potential is initiated
  • Action potential arrives at output region, this increases intracellular charge
    • Opens voltage gated calcium channels
    • This influx causes exocytosis and release of neurotransmitter
  • Synaptic potentials in postsynaptic cell caused by binding of neurotransmitter to ligand-gated channels
    • Release of neurotransmitter from output region initiates synaptic potentials in muscle fiber, then initiate action potential in muscle
  • Voltage-gated channels are found in the conductive region

VI. Axoplasmic Transport

  • Ribosomes only in cell body and dendrites
    • All protein synthesis occurs on ribosomes
  • Radioactive amino acids injected into cell body showed that the radioactivity moved from the cell body down the axon at different rates
  • Transport is divided into fast transport (200-400mm/day) and slow transport (0.2-5.0 mm/day)
  • Fast anterograde transport: moves vesicles from cell body toward the terminal
    • Moves membrane bound vesicles toward cell body
    • Membrane bound proteins
  • Slow transport: moves cytoskeleton components (actin, tubulin, neurofilaments)
    • Cytoplasmic enzymes and proteins
  • Microtubule structure: microtubules are constructed of polymers of alpha and beta tubulin
    • Long tubes
    • 13 perimeter tubulins in circle
    • Fast-moving traffic
  • Molecular motor kinesin allows for movement along microtubule from cell body to axon terminals
    • Cleaves ATP to ADP as an energy source
  • Integral membrane protein produced in cell body, packaged in a vesicle
    • Kinesin receptor (to axon terminal)
  • Slow axoplasmic transport: movement of tubulin, actin, neurofilament protein
    • Transported as monomers and polymers
  • Monomers polymerize and depolymerize to form actin, microtubules and neurofilaments
    • Entire fabric is transported

V. Generating the Membrane Potential

  • Fxn of lipid bilayer = separate charges
    • Negative inside, positive outside
    • K+ inside, Na+ outside
  • Leak channels for K+
    • Determine resting membrane potential
    • Always open; not gated
  • After reaching equilibrium (Na, Ca, Cl) channels allows for ions to move across the membrane
    • Changes the potential

VI. Shifting the Distribution of Charge

  • When increased positive charge, sodium channels open
    • Voltage gated
  • Action potential: the electrical mechanism for carrying signals along membranes rapidly and for long distances

VII. Membrane Potential Generation

  • Electrical potential across membrane forms a biological battery
    • The potential energy bases for electrical signaling
  • Anions cannot cross the membrane
    • Carried by cytoplasmic molecules
  • K+ leak channels are always open
    • Not gated
  1. Action Potential Generation
  • Action potential: all or nothing signal that transmits information over long-distances
  • Initiation when voltage-gated sodium channels open; Na inside the cell
    • Threshold is reached when the influx of Na is greater than efflux of K+ through K+ leak channels
    • After threshold exceeded, Na+ continues to enter cell and drive membrane potential from its resting level of about -60 mV to a positive potential of about +40 mV
  • Synapse formed by gap junctions
    • Allow movement of ions from one cell to another
    • Fast
  • Chemical synapse
    • Neurotransmitter released from presynaptic neuron and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell to open ion channels
    • Excite cell by adding cations or inhibit cell by admitting Cl-
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, glutamate, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and peptides (opiate peptides = endorphins)
  • Inhibitory neurotransmitters: gamma amino butyric acid; GABA and glycine
  • When an action potential arrives at axon terminal, depolarized
    • Opens calcium channels
    • Leads to fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane of the axon terminal
  • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane to produce a postsynaptic potential (PSP)
  • If enough vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane, bring postsynaptic neuron to threshold, action potential initiated at trigger zone in postsynaptic cell

IX. Types of Receptor and the Postsynaptic Potential

  • Receptors responsive to transmitters have 2 groups:
    • Directly gated channels (ligand-gated ionotropic channels)
    • Second messenger mediated
  • Directly gated channels
    • Central nervous system responds to the amino acid glutamate
    • Must bind 2 molecules of neurotransmitter BEFORE the channel open
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters produce depolarizing potentials by opening sodium channels

Temporal vs Spatial Summation

  • Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
    • High voltage
    • Glutamate
    • Na
    • K
    • Makes membrane potential more positive
    • Single EPSP is usually not enough to stimulate membrane potential
    • Summation: total effect that various potentials have altogether
    • Summation occurs at the axon hillock
    • Decrease in voltage as it travels to the axon hillock
    • Temporal summation: multiple action potentials travel down presynaptic neuron linearly
    • Summate at axon hillock of postsynaptic neuron
    • b/c travel linearly, the action potentials add up which initiates an action potential
    • Loss of voltage as EPSPs travel across the cell body
    • Time dependent. Must be in succession within time frame
    • Spatial summation: action potentials on several presynaptic neurons arrive at the postsynaptic neuron simultaneously
    • Resulting voltage is enough to reach threshold potential and trigger action potential
  • Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
    • Low voltage
    • Voltage fluctuations that prevent depolarization
    • More difficult to reach threshold potential
    • GABA
    • Cl
    • Causes threshold potential to be harder to reach
    • Decrease in voltage as it travels to the axon hillock
  • Motor neuron: carry info from brain or spinal cord, regulates activity in muscles or glands
    • Upper and lower interact together to cause movement and other responses
  • Upper
    • Desired movements
    • Form connections w lower
  • Lower
    • Interact with muscles or glands
  • Exterior of spinal cord
    • Dorsal and ventral roots come together to form the spinal nerves
  • Covalent bonds responsible for dipole moment of water
  • mRNA is read 5’ to 3’ by the small ribosomal subunit
    • small ribosomal subunit reads
    • Large ribosomal subunit is docking site for tRNA
  • Nuclear localization factor: short peptides mediates transport of proteins from cytoplasm to nucleus
    • RNA and polymerase
  • Potassium has a high intracellular concentration
  • RNA polymerase II: responsible for production of mRNA
  • Sodium, potassium and ATPases have a signal peptide
  • The DNA in mitochondria are circular
    • b/c no compartments
  • SnoRNA is functional in nucleus
  • The R groups of an integral protein that interacts with ECM
    • Hydrophilic
  • Embryonic germ cells are transcriptionally dormant. You would expect these cells to have
    • DNA primarily in heterochromatin form
  • AMPA receptors bind to glutamate in ECM
    • Binding opens this receptor
    • Allows movement of ions across the membrane
    • LIGAND GATED CHANNELS
  • Keratin is an example of intermediate filament
  • Disruption of post-translational modifications, synthesis of transmembrane channels, and protein misfolding could lead to disease
  • Sprinting for a minute would not use fats to make ATP
  • The bonds between glycerol and fatty acid chains are NOT a result of H bonding
  • Transcription factors bind to DNA in order to promote RNA synthesis
  • RQ value of 0.8 means exercising vigorously
  • Enzymes that form phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides function in the nucleus
    • Formation of DNA in nucleus
  • Example of post-translational modification
    • Phosphorylation of protein channels increasing/decreasing permeability
  • Creatine phosphate stores energy in muscles
  • SNARE complexes allow for exocytosis of vesicles
    • SNAP-25 would be synthesized on a free ribosome
  • Golgi apparatus blocks transfer of [sugars] onto amino acids
  • Glycosylated: enzymatic modification of an organic molecule (protein) by addition of sugar molecule
  • Helicase unzips DNA by breaking H bonds between nitrogenous bases
  • Triglycerides are not a component of membranes
  • The Na+/H+ exchanger requires ATP
  • An amino acid chain with H bonds formed between the peptide bonds is most associated with aquaporin channels
  • DNA does not have a phosphate group
    • DOES have deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base
  • Product of glycolysis is two molecules of lactate
  • Intermediate filament: does not play a role in vesicular transport. Primary component of the cytoskeleton. Form cytoplasm as a ring around nucleus
  • Transcription factors bind to the TATA box in the promoter sequence to recruit RNA polymerase
  • mRNA protected from degradation and allows for ribosome binding by 5’ cap
  • DNA ligase is on lagging strand and links Okazaki fragments
  • mRNA is read 5’ to 3’ on the small ribosomal unit. As codons
  • Clathrin is receptor mediated endocytosis/invagination
  • Synthesis of proteins are sent to rough ER
  • Quaternary structure is when multiple chains of amino acids interact with each other to form the protein structure
  • RNA polymerase III produces tRNA
  • Liver is where pyruvate is converted to glucose (gluconeogenesis)
  • Synthesis of all types of RNA occurs in the nucleus
  • SNARE = exocytosis
    • Clathrin = endocytosis
  • Synaptotagmin binds calcium ions
  • RQ value of 0.8 is most likely starving
  • Amyloidosis: accumulations of insoluble proteins in various parts of the body
  • Missense mutation: mutated base that codes for a different amino acid
  • Misfolding of helicase can impair DNA unwinding
  • ER tags misfolded protein with ubiquitin to be destroyed
  • Soap reduces the surface tension of water by disrupting the H bonds
  • Primary structure of proteins is formed by peptide bonds linking amino acids
  • Non-coding introns are removed by the spliceosome
  • Exons can be rearranged to create multiple proteins from a single gene known as alternative splicing
  • poly-A tail is repeating adenines added to 3’ end to prevent degradation
  • Translation of proteins starts when the small ribosomal subunit binds and beings reading the mRNA
    • Once the start codon (AUG) is found, large ribosomal subunit is recruited and provides a docking site for tRNA
    • Signal peptide: 20 hydrophobic amino acids
    • Will bind to signal recognition particle that moves ribosome complex to rough ER
    • Signal peptidase cleaves signal peptide (20 hydrophobic amino acids)
  • Protein synthesized in rough ER and sent to GA
    • Proteins move in vesicle that is coated with COPII proteins
    • Proteins that travel long-distance are carried by kinesin
    • Moves on microtubules made from tubulin monomers

– RANKL-OPG interaction leads to bone formation

  • Mutations in connexins will disrupt connect communication
  • Short bones: limited movement, mainly provide support
  • Osteocytes communicate with each other by dendrite projection that passes through the canaliculi
  • A drop in hormone level is a humoral stimuli
  • Intramembranous ossification
    • Mesenchymal cells differentiate into blood vessels, osteoblasts and osteoblasts gather in the ossification center
  • Mesenchymal cells DO NOT differentiate into chondrocytes
    • Chondrocytes: secreted cartilage matrix and becomes embedded
  • Osteoclasts increase diameter of medullary cavity
  • Proteoglycans acts like a sponge. Absorbs shock by rapid dehydration and rehydration when load is removed
  • Blisters indicate epidermis and dermis have been affected
  • Cell junctions facilitate cellular polarity by ensuring the surface of epithelial cell is correctly oriented
  • Hemostasis: stopping flow of blood
  • Excess growth hormone release can cause acromegaly
    • Acromegaly: simply too much growth hormone
  • Tight junctions are found in the digestive tract
  • During growth of long bones, blood vessels invade zone of ossification
  • Melanin pigments shield nucleus from UV radiation, this is a chemical barrier
  • Thyroid gland influence calcium levels in blood
    • Rate of metabolism
  • FGF23 regulates levels of phosphate in body
  • Zona reticularis can influence sexual development
  • Trabeculae are found in ONLY spongy bones
    • Not compact bones
  • Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) produced in the kidney
  • Having a high BMI can decrease the risk of osteoporosis
  • Meissner’s corpuscles are responsive to light pressure
  • Hormone made from tryptophan would be classified as amino acid derivatives
  • Epithelial cells are polar, line external surfaces, and cell junctions
    • They are not innervated
  • Chondrocytes maintain matrix in hyaline cartilage
  • Abnormal hemidesmosomes would lead to junctions epidermolysis bullosa
  • Mutations in actin will disrupt attachment of cell junctions
  • Dense regular connective tissue offers greatest resistance against stretching
  • Mutations in stratum granulosum can increase risk of squamous cell carcinoma
  • Prolactin aids in milk production
  • Luteinizing hormone stimulates estrogen and testosterone production
  • Growth hormone stimulates tissue growth
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates release of cortisol from adrenal cortex
  • Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates egg and sperm production
  • Thyroid stimulating hormone increase metabolism
    • THESE ARE ALL PEPTIDE HORMONES
    • Bind to GPCRs on membrane and use cAMP as a second messenger
  • Ossification centers in bones are clusters of osteogenic stems cells that become osteoblasts and secrete osteoid which then calcifies
    • Trapped osteoblasts trapped in calcified matrix become osteocytes which regulate remodeling by secreting SOST to inhibit bone formation and active bone resorption by osteoclasts
  • Melanocytes are in stratum basale
    • Donate pigment granules to keratinocytes
  • Melanoma is cancer in pigment-producing cells
    • Mutations in cadherin proteins of desmosomes allow cells to move to other areas; making this cancer metastatic
  • Skin can be categorized by 5 characteristics
    • A: asymmetry
    • B: border
    • C: color
    • D: diameter
    • E: evolving

- Neurons whose cell bodies are found in ventral (anterior) horn of spinal cord and enter the periphery in the ventral root are efferent neurons whose output regions synapse on muscle cells

- in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, neuronal cell bodies are found in the peripheral nervous system

- peripheral nervous system

- lower motor neuron

- primary sensory afferent neuron

- the amplitude of EPSP is graded with the number of ligand-gated channels that open

- molecules transported from the cell body to the output region in vesicles, on microtubules, at 200 to 400 mm per day

- proteolytic enzymes attack proteins in SNARE complex

- this would prevent exocytosis

- colliculus is in midbrain

- Colliculospinal tract controls reflexes of head and neck

  • Responsible for orienting to sound in environment
  • More regions in the colliculus and their output regions in the gray matter
  • If lipids are labeled, dorsal columns and the decussation of the pyramids are most prominent
  • Astrocyte: holds nerves in place
    • Glial cell
    • Most affected by low ATP levels
  • Oligodendrocytes: similar to astrocytes, produce myelin in CNS
    • Highest density in tracts
  • Proteins that travel in the slow component of axoplasmic transport at an average of about 0.2 to 2mm/day are
    • Synthesized on free ribosomes
  • In EC (excitation contraction coupling) the predominant source of calcium that binds to troponin-C is the sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Increasing membrane resistance in input region would increase amplitude and duration of EPSPs reaching trigger zone
  • Intracellular and extracellular concentrations of sodium are never equal during an action potential
  • Troponin is a calcium binding protein bound to tropomyosin
  • In a neuron high membrane capacitance can be found in the input region and the nodes of Ranvier
  • Is dorsal column on right side was destroyed, fine touch and proprioception on right side of body would be blocked from carrying information
  • In synaptic inhibition, opening Cl channels decreases the membrane resistance to decrease the amplitude and duration of EPSPs
  • If primary sensory afferent neurons die, the death of cell bodies will be in dorsal (posterior) root ganglia
  • If can’t detect pain or fine touch on LEFT side, then the LEFT side of spinal cord is injured
  • Electrical stimulation of 2 neighboring neurons in right precentral gyrus would cause muscle contractions in nearly the same region of the left side of the body
  • The size of the motor unit increases and the strength of the muscle contraction generated by the activation of each of the motor neurons increases
  • The information carried by action potentials are determined by the number and frequency of action potentials in a series
  • Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are at the end of a muscle spindle stretch receptor reflex arc and open these channels
  • Opening of GIRK channels would hyperpolarize and seek equilibrium potential for potassium
  • Output regions of neurons that release GABA are in the gray matter of the CNS
  • In skeletal muscle, the role of the ryanodine receptor (RYR) is to serve as the ion channel that allows the movement of calcium ions from sarcoplasmic reticulum to initiate muscle contraction
  • A drug that blocks acetylcholinesterase is effective because it will prolong the availability of acetylcholine at the synapse
  • Atrioventricular valves close first during isovolumetric contraction
  • Aortic and pulmonary valves are open during ejection phase
  • Pressure in the aorta, predominantly during diastole, provides energy to drive blood through the coronary vasculature in the ventricular myocardium
  • Failure of the left atrioventricular valve to close completely would permit blood flow from the left ventricle into the left atrium
  • Increasing end diastolic volume would increase the sarcomere length in contractile cardiomyocytes leading to increased stroke volume
  • Ca enters the cytoplasm through DHP receptors and binds to RYR receptors which cause Ca to be released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • The pressure that closes the aortic valve moves blood through the capillaries of the right ventricular myocardium
  • When voltage-gated sodium channels are blocked, the greatest effect will be on cells in the SA node and respond to an increase in cAMP by phosphorylating Ca pumps
  • During periods of increased sympathetic activity in the heart, the binding of norepinephrine to B1 receptors to increase heart rate and increase contractility in ventricular cardiomyocytes
  • The low pressure of venous return causes the atrioventricular valves to open
  • Narrowing the coronary artery result because blood flow in this vessel decreases with the fourth power of the radius of the coronary vessel and decreases as the narrowing increases the resistance to flow
  • The T wave is coincided with isovolumetric relaxation and represents K+ efflux from ventricular cardiomyocytes
  • Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are in cardiac ganglion and in the sympathetic chain ganglia
  • During the production of lymph the heart generates a hydrostatic force to move fluid out of the capillary and into the ECM
  • After blood is spun in centrifuge, the greatest amount of MHCII and CD4 proteins are found in the buffy coat
  • Oxygenated blood that is destined for the capillaries of the ventricular myocardium is in contact with endothelial cells of the endocardium left ventricle
  • Fluid accumulation leading to increased pressure in the pericardial sac may prevent ventricular filling from the vena cava and the pulmonary veins
  • Antigens from outside the body are transported across the epithelium by M cells found in the tonsils and Peyer’s patches
  • Antibodies secreted from plasma B cells are glycoproteins
  • Antigens in the ECM are carried into capillaries specialized to carry this fluid
    • This fluid is monitored by cells in the germinal regions of lymph nodes
  • T cells receptors are transmembrane proteins on T helper and T killer cells and recognize antigen fragments presented on MHC proteins
  • The CD8 protein on T killer cells binds to
    • MHCI proteins on all nucleated cells
  • Without T-lymphocytes, the immune system cannot mount an adaptive immune response against virus-infected cells and activate naive B lymphocytes
  • Norepinephrine in autonomic nervous system would be in sympathetic chain ganglia
  • Increased pCO2 would cause right shift in oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve
  • Peripheral chemoreceptors which respond to increased H+ are located in carotid arteries
  • During inspiration, the intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure
  • The gas law that most directly explains the diffusion of gases across the blood-air barrier is called Fick’s law
  • During expiration, intercostal muscles relax
  • Bohr effect explains that low pH decreases the affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin in the tissues
  • Most of the CO2 in the body is transported as bicarbonate in the blood plasma as a consequence of carbonic anhydrase
  • Oropharynx does not directly participate in mucocilliary clearance
  • Hypercapnia affects the binding oxygen to hemoglobin and affects the O2 dissociation curve by shifting to the right
  • A dysfunction in type II pneumocytes can lead to respiratory distres syndome
  • Hyaline cartilage protects the windpipe and voice box
  • Stomach is not an accessory of digestive system
  • Seeing food when hungry will increase secretion of alkaline mucus, ghrelin, lysozymes
  • As the bolus enters the stomach and causes it to distend, mucus, HCl, and gastrin would increase
  • Cholecystokinin digests fat and proteins
  • In progression of atherosclerosis, foam cells are formed when macrophages phagocytose the oxidized LDL
  • Esophageal lesions is a consequence of chronic purging
  • The rate of gastric emptying will be increased by increased gastric pressure
  • Glaucoma is caused by the buildup of sorbitol and fructose in the eyeball
  • Sweet urine is not a symptom of diabetes insipidus
  • Glucagon counteracts low blood glucose levels
    • Most direct consequence of activating glucagon is the breakdown of glycogen
  • Kwashiorkor is characterized by a fatty liver because proteins are unavailable to make very low density lipoproteins
  • Exercise will increase sensitivity of insulin receptors on muscle cells
  • Tubular reabsorption of urea in the papillary duct helps maintain the medullary osmotic gradient in the peritubular fluid
  • In kidney, simple squamous cells are found in glomerular capsule
  • Countertransport causes shift in distal convoluted tubule and in the erythrocytes
  • Constriction of the efferent arteriole causes a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate in autoregulation
  • When there is a drop in blood pressure or low blood volume, the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I would be brought about by renin
  • Bilirubin in the urine may be indicative of a disorder in the liver
  • Activating vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) would result in concentrated urine
  • Countercurrent multiplication occurs in the nephron loop/loop of henle and thus helps establish the medullary osmotic gradient in the filtrate
  • Decrease in plasma protein concentration will affect the glomerular filtrate rate by most directly increasing the blood colloidal osmotic pressure
  • Injecting synthetic angiotensin II could most likely lead to increased thirst, vasoconstriction, and blood pressure
  • While at rest, the autoregulation of the glomerular filtration rate is most dominant
  • In stomach, soluble fiber can promote satiest by decreasing the rate of gastric emptying
  • Soluble fiber helps soften stools
  • Insoluble fiber will trigger peristalsis
  • Fiber decreases the spike in blood glucose levels
  • Fiber will inhibit amylase which digests starch and decrease insulin sensitivity