Module 21

Learning Outcomes of Long-Term Memory Recall

Understanding the causes of difficulties and failures in recalling long-term memories.

Example: Ricardo's job interview illustrates the difficulty of retrieving known information.
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: The temporary inability to recall information despite feeling certain that one knows it.
- Considered a partial memory failure.
- Reflects that past retrieval was successful, even if current retrieval isn't.

Recall vs. Recognition:
- Recall: Retrieving specific information without cues (e.g., answering fill-in-the-blank questions).
- Recognition: Identifying previously encountered information when presented (e.g., multiple-choice questions).
- Recall is harder because it requires a series of processes, including storage and retrieval of information.

Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that aid in recalling stored information (e.g., smells, sights).
They function like a search engine, guiding retrieval in long-term memory.
Example: The smell of sunscreen evokes memories of the beach.

The Levels of Processing Theory suggests that deeper analysis at initial exposure enhances memory retention.
Memory processing levels:
- Shallow: Focus on physical features (e.g., shapes of letters).
- Intermediate: Engaging with meaningful units (e.g., words and sounds).
- Deep: Analyzing meaning and making associations to personal experience.
More thorough initial processing leads to longer retention.

Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection of facts and experiences.
Implicit Memory: Unconscious memories that affect behavior and perception without awareness, e.g., skills and feelings.
- Associated with automatic actions, like flinching away from a moving car.
Priming: A prime (stimulus exposure) makes related information easier to recall later.
- Example: Seeing the letters for "Phobos" helps remember it as a moon of Mars.

Flashbulb Memories: Vivid memories of significant, surprising events.
Example: Memories of traumatic events, such as 9/11, showing how emotional experiences can create detailed memories.
Accuracy of flashbulb memories can still be problematic as emotional distortion often occurs.

Memories can be influenced by schemas, meaning given to events, and the context of recollection.
Source Amnesia: Remembering details but forgetting the origin of the memory.
Example: Not recalling where we first met someone despite knowing them.
Memory is a constructive process influenced by prior knowledge and expectations.

Eyewitness errors can significantly affect legal outcomes due to confidence that may be misplaced.
Factors influencing eyewitness memory:
- Specific questions posed by police and attorneys can lead to inaccuracies (e.g., minor wording changes can affect speed estimates).
- Details can be lost due to perceptual monopolies, like focus on weapons during a crime.

Children report memories that are highly susceptible to influence and suggestion.
Eyewitness accounts from children can be particularly unreliable due to their developmental stage.

Repressed Memories: Traumatic memories pushed into the unconscious but can re-emerge through therapy.
Controversy exists about the authenticity of repressed vs. false memories, as the latter can lead to inaccuracies in perception.
False Confessions: Innocent individuals can falsely confess to crimes under extreme interrogation pressure.

Autobiographical Memory: Influenced by personal biases; people tend to remember positive over negative experiences.
Certain periods (like transitions in life) are recalled more easily versus mundane times.
Memory is affected by emotional states, age, and repeated exposure in culturally framed contexts.

The olfactory bulb is directly connected to emotion and memory processing areas in the brain, explaining scents' power to evoke memories.

Memory processes are similar across cultures, but the way information is acquired varies.
Cultural context dictates what is significant and how memory strategies are utilized.