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PSK 4U Final Exam Review

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PSK 4U Final Exam Review

Final Exam Date: Thursday Jan 23, 2025

The exam will consist of Multiple Choice 60 marks, Matching 20 marks, Short Answer 36 marks

Terminology:

from the Anatomical, Physiological, Bone, Muscle, Cardiovascular/Respiratory Systems will

be asked. (examples include things like: distal, proximal, appendicular, agonist, antagonist, etc.)

The Skeletal System

Bones: What they are made up of?

• Made up of living tissue - bone cells, fat cells, and blood vessels 

• Composed mostly of the mineral calcium  (helps build and maintain the bones)

• Osteoporosis: when someone's diet is low in calcium and becomes increasingly brittle 

• Composed of 50% water and 50% organic and inorganic material (elements include; phosphorus, zinc, calcium, magnesium, fluorine, iron and chlorine

• Resist compression and tension and are bounded by joints through ligaments 

• Muscles attach to bones to produce movement through tendons 

-Main Function of the Skeleton

Structural support, protection, growth center for cells, reservoir for minerals, movement

- The difference between the appendicular and axial skeleton - examples of bones within each and number of bones that make up each, etc.

appendicular - (126) - mobile limbs, legs and arms

Axial- (80 bones)- mainly verterbale column 

- Classification of Bones, roles and examples of each

• Long bones: support bidyweight and facilitate movement, longer than wide, found in arms and legs

• Short bones: provide stability and some movement, about as long as they are wide, most common in ankles and wrists

• Flat bones: protect internal organs (brain, heart, pelvic organs); thin flare found in roof of skull

• Irregular bones: protect internal organs, odd-looking, vary in shape and structure, found in vertebrate, protect spinal cord

• Sesmoid bones: protect tendons stress and wear; flat bones embedded in tendons that move over boney surfaces

- Specific Bones of the Skull and specific landmarks on each bone

• Cranial bones: enclose brain, support respiratory and digestive functions and provide attachment for muscles to allow expression

  • Frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal, occipital bone, sphenoid, ethnoid

• Facial bones: form eye sockets, cheeks, and roof of mouth, hold teeth inn place; and create the walls of sinus

  • Nasal bone, maxilla, zygomatic, mandible

- The Vertebral Column and the Thoracic Cage - landmarks and details on each

o Number of vertebrae, role of the specific vertebrae

• 26 bones, 5 divisions 

• Intervertbral forminina is the opening between vertebrae that allows nerves to passfrom spinal cord to other parts of the body 

• Cervical vertebrae (7 vertebrae)- provid mobility and stability to the head while connecting it to the thoracic spine

  • C1- Atlat (like a globe) works with occipital bone to allow flexion of neck

  • C2- axis allows rotation of the head

• thoracic vertebrae (12 verterae)- chest area of trunk, hold and support ribs, 

• Lumbar vertebrae (5 vertebrae)- lower back, larger in size, carry the weight of the body while proviting flexibility and movent to trunk regions, common sight for pain

• Sacral (1 vertebrae)- sacrum is five bones fused together, connects the spine to the hips

• Coccygeal (tailbone) (1 vertebrae)- coccyx is 3 to five bones fused together connected to sacrum an dit is the site of attachentbn of multiple pelic ligaments and tendons 

o the entire thoracic cage, ribs (True, False, Floating)

• Chest cavity and thorax is divided into 3 parts- dorsal aspect (thoracic vertebrae), lateral aspect (ribs), anterior aspect (sternum and coastal cartilage)

• Function- protect heart and lungs, provide support to pectoral girdle and upper limbs, attachemnt point for many muscles of chest back and shoulders, help with breathing 

• Sternum- three bones fused together- 

  • Manubrium- superior and widest portion of bone clavicle notch

  • Body- largest portions of the sternum costal cartilage articulates from ribs and attaches to the body

  • Xiphoid process- smallest and inferior portion of the bone attachment of important muscles

• Ribs

  • True ribs (first 7)- connect directly to sternum by coastal carilage

  • False rib (8-10)- do not attach directly to sternum attached by coastal cartilage

  • Floating ribs (last 2)- no connection to sternum, attaches to vertebrae 

o The Curves of the Spine

• Natural- 

  • concave (vervical and lumbar) 

  • concave (thoratic flexion)

• Irregular- 

  • Lordosis- sway abc, spin curves inwards ay lower spine (impaclance of muscles strength/tighness) 

  • Kyphosis- abnormal roundess of upper back more than 50 degrees of curvature (occurs bc of trama to spine, can be present at birth)

  • Scoliosis- sideways curvature of spine is a curable progressive condition (occurs durings growth)

- The pectoral girdle: main functions and landmarks

• Made up of two bones, clavicle and scapula

• Function: provid and point where the upper extremities attach to axil skeleton, attachment for many muscles that move upper ectreminties

• Clavicle (collerbones)

  • Long slender bone, s-shaped, doesnr harden till 20 years old so its a common fracture/break spot, Lateral end is the acromial end which articulates with acromin process of the scapula, Medial and is sternal and which articulates with sternum

• Scapula 

  • Large flattened, triangular bone, lies on 12th rib, costal (facing ribs) and doral (facing posterior) 

Bones of the upper limb, the humerus attach to the scapula at the glenoid fossa which is considered a ball and socket joint

• The upper limb included the humerus, the bones of forearm which are the radius and ulna, the wrist bones which are the carpals, the bones of the hand which are the metacarpals and the finger bones which are the phalanges 

Bones of the upper extremities 

Humerus 

• The humerus, the largest and longest arm bone, articulates proximally with the scapula at the glenoid cavity and distally with the ulna and radius. Key features include the head, greater and lesser tubercles (ligament attachment), and intertubercular groove.

• Distal features include the deltoid tuberosity (deltoid muscle attachment), radial and coronoid fossa (accommodating forearm bones during flexion), olecranon fossa (for ulna during extension), lateral and medial epicondyles (muscle attachment), capitulum (articulates with radius), and trochlea (articulates with ulna)

Ulna 

• The ulna, medial to the radius in anatomical position, forms the elbow joint with the humerus. Key proximal features include the olecranon process (elbow point), trochlear notch (articulates with the humerus), coronoid process, and radial notch (articulates with the radius).

• Distally, it narrows into a disk-shaped head with a styloid process for wrist ligament attachment, separated from the wrist bones by articular cartilage. The interosseous membrane connects the ulna and radius, which articulate at proximal and distal radioulnar joints.

Radius 

• The radius is the lateral bone of the forearm in anatomical position, with its head articulating proximally with the humerus's capitulum.

• Key features: radial tuberosity (muscle attachment for forearm flexion), shaft, ulnar notch (articulates with ulna), and styloid process (ligament attachment to the hand). It crosses over the ulna during hand rotation 

Wrist and Hand Bones 

• The wrist's flexibility is due to 8 carpal bones joined by interosseous ligaments, forming the radiocarpal joint, which enables abduction/adduction and flexion/extension.

• The hand consists of 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpals, and 14 phalanges (3 per finger, 2 in the thumb).

Lower extremities 

Pelvic Girdle 

• The pelvic girdle consists of two coxal (hip) bones, joined at the symphysis pubis (anteriorly) and the sacrum (posteriorly), providing strong support for the lower extremities.

• The coxal bones, initially three distinct bones (ilium, ischium, pubis), fuse at the acetabulum. The ilium forms the superior section, the ischium supports weight when sitting, and the pubis forms the anterior section, surrounding the obturator foramen.

Femur and Patella 

• Femur: The longest and strongest bone in the body, with a rounded head on a neck (common fracture site). Features include the greater and lesser trochanters, intertrochanteric line, linea aspera, medial/lateral epicondyles (muscle attachment), and condyles (articulate with tibia).

• Patella: A sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon attached to the tibia. It articulates with the femur (proximally) and tibia (distally), aiding tendon movement during flexion and protecting the knee joint.

Tibia (shin bone)

• supports body weight, transferring it from the femur to the foot

• proximal end has two concave condyles (lateral and medial) that articulate with the femur, separated by the intercondylar eminence

• Tibial tuberosity - the point of attachment for the patellar ligament 

• Anterior crest - contains no muscles and it can be felt beneath skin 

• Medial malleolus - found on the distal end of the tibia and articulate with the talus bone of ankle 

• Fibular notch: articulates with the fibula 

Fibula

• Does not bear any of the body's weight 

• Proximally, its enlarged head articulates with the tibia's lateral condyle

• Distally, the lateral malleolus of the fibula articulates with the talus and stabilizes the ankle

Ankle and Foot Bones

The ankle has 7 tarsals 

• Medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform,lateral cuneiform, cuboid, navicular, and calcaneus 

• The talus is the only bone in the foot that articulates with the tibia and fibula

• When we walk, the talus takes entire weight of the body and transfers the weight along the foot 

• The calcaneus, aka heel bone, is the largest and strongest tarsal bone

• There are 5 metatarsals and 14 phalanges (3 on each toe big toes only has 2)

Anatomy of a long bone 

• Cartilage & Periosteum: Articulating cartilage covers bone ends for smooth joint movement and protection. The periosteum is the outer connective tissue, connecting bone to ligaments and tendons.

• Bone Structure: Compact bone provides structural integrity, while cancellous (spongy) bone, with trabeculae and marrow-filled spaces, absorbs stress and adapts to exercise.

• Bone Components: The diaphysis (shaft) contains the medullary cavity (red/yellow marrow for blood-cell formation and fat storage). The epiphysis has compact bone externally and cartilage at articulating surfaces.

• Growth & Cortex: Epiphyseal plates (growth sites) are located in the epiphyses. The cortex is the dense, smooth outer layer of bones

• Humerus- longest largest bone of upper extremities and articulates with scapula at glenoid fossa

• ulna

- Ossification vs. Bone remodeling

Step 1: ossification- 

• general process in which bone is produced 

• ogenesis occurs during sixth seventh week of foetal development under age 25

• The growth plate, or apophysis, grows farther from the diaphysis, forming mature bone cells. Epiphysis lines remain, and growth can continue even after longitudinal growth creases, known as oppositional growth.

• Hormones control growth rate, with chondryocytes reducing and bone replacing cartilage.

 Step 2: remodeling- 

• continuous process where bone is created destroyed, involved in development of bone 

• Purpose- 

  • to regulate calcium homeostasis 

  • repair micro damaged bones 

  • shape skeleton during growth

• Bone modelling occurs during bone growth, where matrix is reabsorbed and deposited on one surface.

• Bone remodelling occurs when osteoblasts replace resorbed bone on the same surface. This process is most active during early human growth and declines around 30. From age 40, reabsorption exceeds bone reformation, leading to bone loss and mass loss per decade.

- spongy vs cancellous bone

Compact Bone:

• It begins as cartilage

• Osteoblasts are bone forming cells which discharge an osteoid (gelatin-like substance) into which minerals are deposited to form the hardened material recognized as bone 

  • Example: long bones have 3 sites of ossification – at the centre and at both ends

2. Spongy bone/Cancellous bone: 

• It begins as fibrous membranes (connective tissue) 

• Osteoblasts release osteoids which forms a sponge-like bundle of fibres 

  • Example: skull bones

- Epiphyseal plates and lines

Plate (growth plate)

• Occurs at various locations at epiphyses of long bone, Growth is possible

Line

• Occurs when epi-seal plate has fused come together, Growth is not possible 

- two main phases of bone remodelling

STEP 1: oseoclast

• Bone destroying cells, Cells remove old bones by releasing acids and enzymes

STEP 2: osteoblasts

• Bone building cells, Protein secreting cells at deposit new tissue

• Process is most active during early years of human growth and declines around 30, From age 40 onward process reverses and reabsorption begins to exceed bone reformation 5 to 10% loss and bone mass per subsequent decade

- Bone injuries (three types of fractures) and diseases why/how they occur and process of Healing.

1. SIMPLE- no separation of bones into parts

2. COMPAOUND- phone breaks into separate pieces and breaks through skin

3. COMMINUTED-  broken end of bone have shattered into many pieces

-anatomy of a long bone

The Joints

- The Characteristics of a Synovial Joint (& be able to label)

Permit movement between 2 or more bones and classified by the following:

• Articular cartilage: located on the ends of the bones that come in contact with one another 

  •  absorbs shock: protects bones from wear and tear, decreases friction, and allows smooth contact surface for bone to move 

• Joint capsule: bag like outer surface, fibrous structure consist of the synovial membrane (lines the capsule and allows nutrients to pass through) and fibrous capsules (keeps synovial fluid from leaking) 

• Joint cavity: filled with synovial fluid, acts as a lubricant for the joint (reducing friction), provides nutrients for the articulating cartilage 

  • Located between 2 bony articulating surfaces 

• Bursa: small, flattened fluid sacs found at the friction points between tendons, ligaments, and bones 

  • Allows skin, tendons and ligaments to glide smoothly over one another (found at friction points) 

• Intrinsic ligaments: thick bands of fibrous tissue that help thicken and reinforce the joint capsule 

• Extrinsic ligaments: separate from the joint capsule and helps to reinforce the joint by attaching the bones together 

• Meniscus: shock absorption; articulating surface, smooth movement 

- Different types of Joints

• Fiber joints- immovable joint, fibrous connective tissue grows between, keeping 

• Carilaginous bone- slightly movable joint, body connects to body by means of cartilage

• Synovial joint- freely moveable, have a ligament that encloses joint cavity

- Types of Synovial Joints

Ball and socket

• Manoeuvrable, Allows three planes of movement forward backwards appendicular

Hinge

• One plane of movement, Convex portion of one bone fitting into a concave portion, Between bones of phalanges

Saddle joints

• Two planes of movement flexion extension, abduction, and abduction, Carpals, articulation of thumb 

gliding joint 

• movement does not occur about an axis, Connect flat, slightly curved surface tarp and carpal, Glide against each other

Pivot joint

• One plane of movement, Round bone fits into groove of another, Joint of first two vertebrae of neck, axis, and Atlas

Ellipsoid joint

• Two planes of move, Similar to ball and socket, Wrist between second carpal and first and second phalange

- Identify common joint injuries, diseases, how to treat (SHARP & RICE)

• Arthritis- inflimation of joints

• Osteoarthritis- loss of cartilage so bones become exposed, happenes from lots of use of cartilage and so it decreases

• Rheumatoid arthritis- auto immune disease where immune system attacks bodily system- in this case joints 

• Bursitis- small flatten sacks of fluid at friction pojunts, common ins shoulder and elbow 

• Cartilage damage- flexible connective tissue, not as rigid as bone more stiff that msucle carriage damage 

• Dislocation- bone is displaced caused by collision/fall

• Separation- most serious affects connective tissue (ex tear of ligament that connects clavicle and scapula

• Sprain- stretching/tearing of ligaments

• Strain- strech/tear of muscles and tendons

  • Mild, intermediate, and sever

• Tendonitis- inflamation of tendons 

• SHARP- swelling, heat, altered, red, painful

• RICE- rest, ice, compression, elevation

Introduction to muscular skeletal system

Includes bones joints, and muscles

Provides form support and stability ability to move

Primary functions

• Support Body/keep it up right

• Allow movement

• Protect vital organs

• Main storage system for calcium, phosphorus, and components of blood

Components and functions

• Comprised of bone, skeletal muscle and connective tissues, skeletal muscles, connect bones via tendons

• Bones bound together through ligaments

• Cartilage tissue prevent grinding of bones

Muscular system

• Bone/joints form framework, but can’t move without muscles

• About 700 muscles in the human body make up 40 to 50% of bodyweight

Function

• Locomotion posture, heat production

Characteristics

• Irritability because of nerve stimuli

• Contractibility respond to stimulate by shortening

• Extensibility stretch relaxed

• Elasiticy 

Types of muscle tissue

1. Cardiac - involuntary control found in heart

2. Smooth- involuntary control found in internal organs and hollow structures( blood vessels, hair, follicles uterus) shorter than skeletal cells stay contracted for longer

3. Skeletal- voluntary control most prevalent muscle type(30 to 40%) contain stations, both fast and slow twitch fibres attached to bone through tendons

Muscle development

• Most muscles form eighth week of pregnancy and can be felt moving by 17th week

• You were born with a fixed amount of muscle cells

• Growth of cells depends on 

  • Atrophy- decrease of muscle diameter due to no stimulation/lack of exercise

  • Hypertrophy- increase of muscle diameter 

  • Transient- pump increased fluid accumulation to exercise muscle rush of blood makes them look bigger, but doesn’t last

  • Chronic- depending on intensity and frequency of workouts, increased capillary density, muscle density, and storage of creatine phosphate

How muscles connect to bones

1. InDirectly via attendance

2. Directly outer membrane of muscle attaches to outer membrane of bone

Long-term fatigue

     Muscle pain/soreness post activity (delayed onset muscle soreness)

Types of muscle contractions

1. Concentric- muscle fibre shorten(bicep curl)

2. Eccentric- muscle fibres lengthen(release bicep curl)

3. Isometric- muscle fibres remains same like(static)

Major muscles

   Anterior side

• Quadriceps groups rotator cuff abdominal pectorals

    Posterior side

• Gluteal hamstring calf rhomboid

Antagonist and agonist pairs

   Agonist- muscle primarily responsible for movement of body(prime mover)

   Antagonist- muscle that counteract lengthens when agonist contracts

   Stabilizer- muscle that provides support and hold joint in place

Origin and insertion of muscle

• Movement of muscle depends on where it is attached to bone/crossing of a joint

• Skeletal muscle, it causes movement of the attached bone

• Origin- muscle attached to more stationary bone of axial skeleton (immovable, end DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness)

• Microscopic tears deep within muscle fibres caused by new/more intense change in exercise or increase in time

• proximal end)

• Insertion- muscle attaches to bone that moves the most ( moveable end distal,end )

• When muscle contracts insertion moves/pulled towards origin

Neuromuscular system 

Epimysium- envelopes entire muscle (extends past muscle/becomes bone)

Paramysium- connective tissue bind groups of muscle fibres together

Endomysium- connected tissue that surrounds muscle fibre itself

Skeletal muscle/fiber

• Diameter can be up to 100 UM length over 30 cm

• Can belong single skeletal muscle cells result from fusion of hundreds of embryonic precursors called myoblast

• Have multiple nuclei

Anatomy of skeletal cell

• Sarcolemma- plasma membrane lies beneath Endo. My CM contains transverse T tubes which penetrate through the cell/conduct electrical impulse from surface of cell to cell itself

• Sarcoplasm- muscle cells cytoplasm contained by sarcolemma contains glycogen, myoglobin, calcium, and other organelles

• Sarcoplasmic reticulum- muscles version of endoplasmic reticulum calcium storage used for muscle activation

• Sacromere- unit containing Acton and myosin thousands of repeating individual units thread like structures units overlap muscle contraction occurs

Anatomy of sacrum

• Acton(thin filament) myosin(thick filament)

• Z line- Acton or bond to form border

• I band- straddle composed of thin filaments during contraction is shrink

• A band- composed of thick filaments does not contract/shrink

• H zone- subdivision of a band only thick filament, shrink string contraction

Motor unit

Motor neurons, axon(pathway) muscle fibres

• Nerves transmit impulse waves

• A single nervous impulse and contraction is muscle twitch

• Muscle contraction begins from brain

Neuromuscular junction

• Where nerves and muscles meet (contact point)

• Principle of energy transfer

• Electrical energy moves to surface of muscle fibre where it is converted into chemical energy and eventually into mechanical energy

All or none principal

• When motor unit is stimulated to contract, it will do it to its fullest potential

• . If motor unit consist of 10 fibre turned on all or none of the fibre will contract.

Process of muscle contraction( excitation contraction coupling)

1. Signal originates from spinal cord moves to neuromuscular junction

2. Signal is transferred to muscle fibres via tubular membrane

3. Calcium ions released into sarcoplasm

4. Calcium interacts with troponin signalling tropomyosin

5. Calcium allows coupling effect to unfold resulting in muscle contraction

Sliding filament theory

• Muscle contracts by overlapping acting in my sin, causing sarcomere ( and whole muscle fibre) to contract

Contraction of muscle

• Myosin comprised of head and tail, head has attachment site for Acton, which has binding site for myosin

• Acton has two other proteins troponin (has blinding site for calcium )and tropomysin (stringing looking cord structures covering site for active)

• Myofibril play a role in contraction

Sliding filament

   Myosin, crosses, bridges, small bridges on thick filament, attach rotate detach and reattach

What signals to contract?

1. Nerve action, triggers, nerve impulse to release Ach

2. Ach binds to Ach receptor

3. Calcium becomes activated and is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum into sarcoplast

4. Calcium attaches to troponin and triggers tropomyosin to uncover Acton binding site

5. Myosin head, swivels, and binds actin muscle contracts

6. ATP used to breakdown bonds straighten cross, bridges, and allow cross bridges to form a new bond with another active site

7. ATP is used to actively transport calcium ions out of muscle back to sarcoplasmic reticulum

8. Triggers tram mycin to return to original position

Sliding filament theory(cont)

• Acting and mycin interact under special conditions

• Myosin cross bridges extends to Acton, causing rapid attachment, rotation, detachment, and reattachment

• Result in shortening of muscle/sarcomere

• Trigger mechanisms is the release of calcium and troponin and tropomyosin 

• Calcium release is triggered by ATP

• As muscle works, there is an increase in ATP

ATP

• Re-uptake of calcium muscle relaxation

• Detach myosin from Acton

• Harvested through glucose molecules

• ATP= ADP+ P+ energy

Reflexes and proprioeption

-nervous system-

Central nervous system

• Brain and spinal cord

• processes/interprets/stores info and issues orders to muscles glands and organs

Peripheral nervous system

• Transmits infor to and from CNS

Reflexes 

• Important part of all physical movement 

• Automatic rapid unconscious response to stimulus

• Cerebral- command center for reflex located in brain

• Spinal- command is located in spinal cord

• Reflex contraction of skeletal muscles (spinal reflect) is not depenedant on conscious intervention by higher centers of the brain but are a way the body responds to an unexpected stimulus 

Automatic reflex- mediated by automatic division of nervous system and usually involve activation of smooth muscles cardiac muscle and glands 

• Regulate bodily function like

  • Digestion, elimination, blood pressure, sweating 

Somatic reflex- stimulation of skeletal muscles by somatic divison of nervous system

• Ex. stretch reflex and withdrawal reflex

Reflex arc

• Neurons in our body transmit information to each other through a series of neutral connections that form a pathway or circuit

• Is a simple neutral pathway along which an initial sensor stimulus and corresponding message travels

• Stimulus from sensory neurons is sent to CNS, but there is no interpretation of the signal few if any neurons are involved

• Signal is transmitted to motor neuron which ill a response

• Receptor, adjuster, effector

Five steps

1. Receptor receives initial stimulus

2. Sensory nerve carries impulse to spinal column or brain brain

3. Adjuster/neuron, interprets, signal, and issues in appropriate response

4. Nerve carries response from spinal cord to muscle/organ

5. Effector Oregon carries out the response

Monosynaptic- single connection between sensory neuron and motor neuron (no interventions, quick reflect)(knee jerk)

Polysynaptic- neural connections interneurons are present ( ex withdrawal)

Propriception 

• Special receptors, giving ongoing feedback 

• coordination and ongoing feedback is required for proper movement

• Joints, muscles and ligaments are sensitive to stretching tension and pressure

• A person’s ability to position, orientation and movement of body

• Found in muscles, tendons, and joints and inner ear that detect the motion or position of the body or limb, responding to stimuli from within the organism

• Muscle spindles and tendon organs are procripotators That continuously monitor muscle action, and our essential

• They tell the nervous system about the state of the muscle contraction and allow it to respond

Control of movement

Golgi tendon

• Located at end of tendons

• Detect increase tension exerted on tendons

• Help protect muscles from extensive tension that would otherwise result in damage to the muscle/joint

• GOT provide feedback to CNS regardless of magnitude

• Likely a role in the development of strength and power, since it is necessary to overcome obstacles present by tendon organ to exert grade force

Muscle spindles

• Help detect increase muscle length

• Located in muscle belly

• Les parallel to main muscle fibre and send constant signals to spinal cord

• Consist of specialized muscle fibres known as intrafusal muscle fibres smaller than ordinary, skeletal muscles, but they behave the same way and look the same

• They are sensitive to changes in muscle length

• Contain two Afrin and one nerve fibre

• Changes in muscle length and respond to it by sending message to spinal cord leading to appropriate motor responses

Stretch reflex

• Muscle spindles are involved in the stretch reflex

• The stretch reflex is a simplest spinal reflex

• Depends on only one connection between Afrin fibres and motor neurons of the same muscle

• When await a person is caring is suddenly increased. This causes the weight-bearing muscle lengthen which increases the activity of the muscle spindle leads to stimulation of neurons (increased muscle connection)

• The result in a reciprocal inhibition where the opposing muscle is also stimulated because there is a constant adjustment between Agnes and antagonist muscles

• Knee jerk is an example of stretch reflex

Need jerk reflex

• A simple reflex that involves transmission of information from a sensory neuron to the appropriate motor neuron across a single sign apps in the spinal cord

• Knee-jerk reflex action is an example of monosynaptic reflex

Cross extensor reflex

• When one leg or arm automatically compensates for a reflex action in the opposing leg or arm

• Combination of nervous and muscular system has involved greatly from infancy

Withdrawal reflex

• When a person touches something hot and withdraw their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulate his temperature and pain receptors in the skin triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system

Reciprocal inhibition

• When the central nervous system sends a signal to the antagonist muscle causing movement to contract, the tension in the antagonist muscle opposing movement is inhibit by impulse from motor neurons, and thus must simultaneously relax

The Energy Systems

Three metabolic pathways: 

ATP-PC (anaerobic alactic): ADP + Phosphocreatine → ATP + creatine + energy 

• Allows for quick intense muscle contractions (10-15 seconds of high energy activity)

• Lactic acid is not a by product, does not involve glucose

• Phosphocreatine is a high energy molecule where phosphate can be broken off easily to convert ADP to ATP (stored in muscles, readily accessible to sustain levels of ADP) 

• Advantages: produces larger amounts of energy in short amounts of time 

• Limiting factor: minimal amount of (ATP - PC) so activity cannot be maintained 

Glycolysis (anaerobic lactic) 

• Partial breakdown of glucose, with lactic acid as a by product 

• Allows longer bursts of energy (typically 16 seconds to 3 minutes), ATP-PCs backup

• 1 molecule of glycogen = 2 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of pyruvic acid 

• Advantages: produces energy under conditions of inadequate oxygen 

• Limiting Factor: lactic acid build up, quick fatigue 

Cellular Respiration (aerobic lactic) 

• Main source of energy during endurance events 

• Complete breakdown of glucose and yields large amounts of ATP 

• Fats are used after 20 minutes, proteins are used in starvation 

• 36 molecules of ATP are produced for one molecule of glucose 

• Advantages: ability to sustain low intensity for a longer duration (2+ mins) 

• Limiting factors: lower intensity 

• 3 main stages: 1. Glycolysis 2. The Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) 3. The electron transport chain 

Muscle Fibre Types 

Slow twitch muscle fibres 

• Red muscle fibres that are high in myoglobin and ideal for endurance activities 

Fast twitch fibres

• white/pink fibers that are low in myoglobin and more adapted to shorter bursts of effort activities

  • Myoglobin: an oxygen storage unit that delivers oxygen to working muscles 

Type I (slow-oxidative SO) muscle fibres  

• Generate energy slowly, more fatigue resistant and primarily depend on aerobic processes

Type IIA (fast-oxidative glycolytic FOG) muscle fibres 

• Intermediate muscle fibers that allow for high speed energy release as well as glycolytic capacity

Type IIB (fast-glycolytic FG) muscle fibres

• Store lots of energy and sufficiently high levels of enzymes necessary for quick contractions (without requiring oxygen) 

How genetics and lifestyle influence the different types of muscle fibers in the body:

• Theory: athletes bodies have a higher capacitor to take in and use oxygen (VO2max)

• Argument: low overall body fat, long legs, and low resting heart rate helps these athletes run faster, longer, and more efficiently 

• Children in Kenya/Ethiopia: walk and run everywhere - building strong background in distance running  

• Budding athletes in these countries see running as a means of supporting their family through prize money and endorsements 

Cardiovascular System & Respiratory System

-Label Diagram of Heart 

- Aneurism

• Happens because of hypertension (high blood presure), cuased by obisity, smoking, to much salt, lack of exercies, and genetics

- Varicose veins

• Occurs when viens become faulty and blood begins to pool in areas of viens

• The walls of viends becomes streched and less elastic, the valves can weaken which can allow blood to leak backwars and eventually flow in the opposite direction

- Heart Murmer

- Hypertension

• High blood pressure, Cause: obesity, smoking stress, too much salt, lack of exercise genetics, Risk: heart attack or stroke, aneurism heart failure

- Hypotension

• Low blood pressure, Cause: hormones pregnancy medication, Isn’t a problem unless it causes symptoms or is an elderly, Can cause dizziness, lightheadedness

-heart disease

• Coronary circulation (heart attack)

  • The heart requires oxygen, and blood flow through it does not provide it.

  • The heart's system of vessels supplies essential materials to the heart muscles. 

  • Blockages in heart vessels can lead to serious health issues and death

    • Ex heart attack (myocardial infraction).

• Coronary artery disease (Atherosclerosis)

  • Coronary artery narrowing due to cholesterol accumulation, poor diet, smoking, high blood lipids, hypertension, and genetics, affects heart muscles, which contract electrically.

-Anatomy of the Heart including blood flow through the heart in order

• Superior vena cava→ right atrium → tricupsid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary artery → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → rest of body

-Vascular Structures (Veins, Venules, Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries)

• Arteries (away from heart)- contracibily and elasticity 

  • In systemic carries oxygenated blood from left side of heart towards body tissures 

  • In pulmonary carries deoxygenated blood from right side of heart twoards lungs

• Veins (towards heart)- little contracibility/ eleacsisty, one way valves 

  • In systemic carries deoxygenated blood toawrds left side of heart 

  • In pulmonary carries oxygenated bloof towards left side of heart

• Arteriols

  • Vessels that branch out from arteries and lead to capillaries where gas exchange occurs

• Capillaries

  • Smallest blood vessel that helps enable exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioside, nutrients and wast substance between blood and tissues 

-Blood Pressure 

• Systole- relacation, v fills with blood, observed in arteries during relaxation phase

• Diastole- contraction, heart contract/ejects blood, max pressure oberved arteries during contraction phase 

• Blood pressure in normally 120/80 (systolic over diastolic)

-Ways your body returns blood to the heart

• Thoraric pump- negative pressure of chest during inspiraction pushed blood into vena cava and right side of heart

• Venocontraction- contracrtion of smooth muscles in wall of veins 

• Skeletal muscles pump- pressure of skeletal muscles contracts in combination with one way valves

-Composition of Blood

• 44% red blood cells- cells that contain hemoglobinw which binds to oxygen and carbon dioxide and gives blood the ability to transport and dilver 

• 1% white blood cells- help with immune system 

• 55% plasma- fragments of cells which regulate clooting of blood

-Lub, Dub - what is the noise?

• Lub- closing of AV valve

• Dub- closing of semi lunar valve

-Electrical Conduction (progression, from SA to AV, etc.)

• Hearts electrical conduction system- cardiac muscles are excitable which means electrical stimulation they will contract

-Electrocardiogram - be able to label and explain

• P-wave- represent the polarization of breading of electrical signals to control though atria once completec the electrical valve has reached av node

• QRS- represent depolarization (more positive and initiation contraction) of venetricles 

• AQQ- the signal has reached the ventricles 

• T-wave- represent repolarization (more negative initiation relaxation) ventricles are preparing for contraction

-Bradycardia- less beats per minute (60 bpm or less) one of the most easily observed adaptations that occurs with training 

-tachycardia- heart rate more than 100 bpm

-The Effects of Exercise (and impact on Q, HR, Stroke Volume, Ejection Fraction - be able to explain)

• Cardiovascular dynamics, heart and vessels adapt to accommodate ever changing requirement of body during exercise, more healthy individual will have lower resting heart rate

-How exercise influences your cardiovascular system

• A lower heart rate is an indicator of strong athletic heart healthy is 60 to 100 bpm but athletes can have 40 to 60 bpm. The heart is a muscle the more you train it the more efficiently it can pump oxygenated blood to tissues.

-Function & Structure of Respiratory System

• Function: supply oxygen to blood, remove carbon dioxide from blood, relgulate blood Ph (acid base balance)

• Structres: conductive sone- transports filtered air to lungs (incude mouth nose sphynx, trachea, primary and secondary breaky) respiratory zone- where gass exchange occurs (insuldes bronchi, avelar ducks and sacs)

-Types of Respiration

• External

  • Lungs to environment

  • Process that occurs within months involving exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Internal

  • Blood and cells

  • Exchange of gases at tissue level oxygen is delivered and carbon dioxide is removed

• Cellular respiration

  • Process in which cells use oxygen to generate energy in the mitochondria of cells

-Inspiration

• Inspiration involves active process contraction of respiratory muscles, requiring significant energy expenditure, and air flow into the lungs due to increased lung volume.

-Expiration

• Expiration occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, resulting in passive quiet breathing.

-Diffusion & Relation to Gas Exchange

Diffusion

• Primary factor that mediates gas exchange both at lungs and tissue

• The movement of gas liquid or solid from high concentration to low concentration through random movement

• Can only occur if difference of concentration exist(concentration gradient)

Oxygen transport- oxygen is absorbed in lungs and carried to peripheral tissues

Carbon dioxide transport- CO2 in blood is moved into Avioli and then exhaled from Body

-O2 deficit- O2 deficit- difference between oxygen required to perform a task and oxygen actually consumed to reach a new steady state. Training will allow you to reach that state faster.

OBLA- When lactate levels begin to accumulate rapidly in blood, With training the curve can shift to the right therefore the intensity of exercise can be higher before lactate levels increase

-VO2 Max- Maximum rate of oxygen consumption in millilitres that a human body can use in one minute per kilogram of bodyweight while breathing air at sea level

-Asthma- Spasm of smooth muscles that line respiratory systems, and over secretion of mucus and swelling of lining of respiratory tracks

• Factors: exercise allergic reaction stress

• Controlled through medication

-COPD- General term describing a family of diseases that lead to dramatic reduction of airflow

• Cannot perform normal activities without shortness of breath

• Treatment: medication can sometimes be used, and more severe cases, supplementary oxygen therapy and respiratory muscle training

Biomechanics:

-Know all terminology for linear, angular and general motion

• Linear motion: Body or parts move in the same direction and distance.

• Angular motion: Movement of body about an axis, not through the center.

  • Types: object rotation, entire body rotation, individual segment rotation.

• Nature's motion is either linear or angular.

- Newton’s Laws

• Law one :law of inertia

  • Everybody will remain in a state of motion or rest, unless acted upon by outside force

  • Inertia= tendency to not move or change and is directly related to mass of object 

  • Ex: curling/ soccer ball beinhg kicked

• Law two: law od acceleration

  • Acceleration is proportional to force but vaires indirectly to mass

  • Larger mass= acceleration slower

  • Ex. smaller mass of golf ball vs larger mass of big ball, if same force was applied they would accelerate at different speeds

• Law three: law of reaction

  • For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

  • Ex. taking off for a jump for a high diver- action is pushing against ground, reaction is athlete going up 

  • With angular mation for every torque exerted by one aprt of the body, there is an equal and opposite torque by second body on the first 

-Biomechanical Principles

7 Biomechanical principles: 

• Static systems: the branch of mechanics that deals with objects or bodies in a state of constant unchanging motion ex. Gymnast holding a handstand 

• Dynamic systems: the branch of mechanics that studies changes in the motion of objects or bodies as a result of actions of forces ex. Rugby player getting down the field

Principle 1: Stability 

• Greater the mass, lower centre of mass to the base of support, the larger the base of supper, and the closer the centre of mass is positioned to the base of support = increase in stability  

Key concepts -

• Mass: quantity of matter contained within object or body - center of mass: the imaginary middle point around which the mass of the object is balanced 

• Base of super: supporting area beneath an object or body

• Stability: the quality state, or degree of being stable and capable of resistance change in motion

• Balance: even distribution of mass enabling someone to remain steady 

Principle 2&3: Principles of maximum effort 

Production of maximum force (2): requires the use of all possible joint movement that contribute to tasks objective 

Production of maximum velocity (3): requires the use of joints in order from largest to smallest

Principle 4&5: Linear motion 

Impulse-momentum relationship (4): the greater the applied impulse, the greater the increase in velocity 

• when an object is in motion(momentum) the momentum of the ball in motion is equal to the mass times velocity

• The greater the pushing force and the greater the amount of time over which it is applied to the ball, the greater the impulse

Direction of application of applied force (5): movement usually occurs in the direction opposite that of the applied force (related to newton’s third law) 

Principle 6&7: Angular motion

Production of angular motion, or torque (6): angular motion is procured by the application of a force acting at some distance from an axis; that is, by torque 

• If an eccentric )off-centre) force is applied to a body, the force tends to make the body rotate about its axis 

• Amount of torque depends on: 1. Applied force 2. Length of the lever arm 3. Angle of application of the force 

The conservation of angular momentum (7): angular momentum is constant when an individual is free in the air (it's the quantity of motion contained within an object or body) 

• Product of the rate at which an athlete is rotating 

• Resistance = moment of inertia 

  • the farther the body from axis, the greater the moment of inertia 

-Three Lever Classes

• Class one lever: axis of rotation (fulcrome) located between effort and load 

  • Ex seesaw, ex in human body neck as it shifts from flection to extension 

• Class two lever: resistance (load) between efort and fulcrum 

  • EX wheelbarrow, ex in human body standing on oes planter flexion

• Class three lever: effort located between fulcrum and resistance 

  • Ex fishing rod, ex in human biceps curl

Worksheet & Textbook Review:

Pg.158-159, 161 #1,3,5,6

Pg.172-173

Pg.184-185, 187 #1-10

Pg. 202-203, 205 #1-10

The History of Sport

-Ancient History of Sport

Human movement- a way of survival

• Hunting, gathering, and warfare consumed time and energy.

• Leisure became less important.

• Gradually, people valued physical activities for enjoyment, self-improvement, and health benefits.

The mayans (mesoamerica)

• Maya peoples resided in mesoamerica (mondern-day mexico and central america)

• The ball game, the first organized sport game dates back 3500 years 

• The game held deep religious and ritual meaning with the loer being sacrificed

• The game had 13 hundred ball courts scattered throughout with teams composed of 2 or 3 male player 

• The main objective was to get a solid rubber ball through one of the rock circles indicating an instant win

• Game symbolized regeneration and life

-Greek Mythology

• Ancient Greeks were pioneers in the development of physical activity and the Olympic Games

Olympic games 

• The first recorded Olympic Games took place in 776 B.C.E., with additional sports added later.

• The Games were held at the beginning of each new Olympiad in homage to the god Zeus.

• An Olympic truce was called a month before the Olympics to ensure athletes could safely travel to Olympia.

• The Romans continued the Olympic tradition, viewing athleticism as an important part of a young man’s education.

• Boxing was embraced by the Romans, evolving into a gladiator sport.

• As the Roman Empire declined, the athleticism of the age and its value declined, and the Olympic Games disappeared.

Middle ages and renaissance

• Athletic events were left primarily to the elite, with pursuits like sword fighting, horseback riding, jousting, and archery reserved for noblemen.

• Peasants enjoyed activities like dancing, wrestling, fighting with cudgels, and playing games similar to soccer.

• The Renaissance, a period from approximately 1400 to 1650, expanded knowledge about art, languages, science, and history, renewing interest in Greek and Roman culture.

•  The concept of "athleticism" was introduced as people recognized the benefits of physical activity.

• The study of human anatomy and physiology intensified due to thinkers like Leonardo da Vinci.

Modern period

• Vittorino da Feltre initiated the first childhood physical education classes in 1420.

• New sports were developed throughout Europe, including golf, curling, ice and field hockey, and "folk football" games.

Industrial revolution

• The Industrial Revolution shifted the economy from rural to factory-driven, leading to a middle class and a middle class.

• The middle class joined the upper class in leisure pursuits, leading to the rise of popular recreational activities like bicycling, roller skating, horseback riding, boating, and swimming.

Victorian era 

• Sport was viewed as vital to a privileged young man's education.

• Physical education and sport became a growing part of the British public school system.

• The Victorian ideal of "amateurism" excluded the lower classes from participating in sport

-How the History of Sport/Olympics evolved from ancient to modern day

-Politics in Sport

-Racism

• South Africa's apartheid policy prohibited non-whites from participating in sports events with whites until 1990.

• "Negro Leagues" in baseball flourished in North America in the 1920s and 1930s due to segregation.

• White major league players were paid more than black players in the Negro League.

  • Jackie Robinson became the first black professional baseball player in 1946.

• Canadian-born sons of Japanese immigrants organized their own baseball leagues in British Columbia in the 1920s.

• The strongest team was the Ashai, known for their "brain ball" style.

-gender

• After the civil war, women gained opportunities in organized sports 

• The bicycle revoultionized womens participation in physical activities 

• Ost ww2 womens competivie collegiate sport emerged

• Women fought against the feminine idea stereotupe in sports 

• Polictical and economic freedom pushed boundaries in sports 

• Title IX in us education amendments prohibited gender discrimination in schools 

• UN millennium develeopment goal 3 primotes gender equality 

• First modern olympic games in 1896 exculed women, 2012 london games women where allowed to compete in all sports 

-nationalism

-Amateurism vs. Professionalism

• Professional athletes: are ones who are paid to compete in a sport (for example in the NHL, the NBA the PGA the ATP and many other professional sports.

• Amateur athletes: typically play mainly for personal enjoyment and prestige. Unlike the professionals,namateur athletes are not paid to compete full-time. They often rely on government

• The Olympics originally promoted amateurism, emphasizing fair play and participation for the love of the sport. However, over time, the games shifted to allow professional athletes due to growing commercialization, increased competition, and the need to attract a larger audience. This change allowed top-tier athletes from various sports to compete at the highest level, enhancing the quality of competition and global appeal.

-Drug Use in Sport

• Doping has been a major ethical issue in sports, with various methods such as gender testing and anabolic testing implemented to ensure fair play. 

• Notable cases include Ben Johnson, whose 1988 Olympic gold medal was stripped due to steroid use, and the widespread Russian doping scandal, which led to suspensions and stricter anti-doping regulations. 

• Gender testing has also been controversial, as seen in the case of Caster Semenya, raising questions about fairness and inclusion in competition.

-People and Heroes in Sports – who are they?

• Kathrine Switzer, who broke gender barriers in the Boston Marathon

• Jackie robinson- first black person to play in MLB

• Jesse owens- challenged nazi ideology in 1936 olympics 

Health Risks & Obesity

- Review injuries and health risks that expand across all systems as well as how physical literacy can help prevent obesity