Science & Environmental Science Lecture

Course Information

  • Science & Environmental Science

  • Professor Søren Warland

Winter Storm Notice

  • Class will be held on Zoom on Monday.

  • Zoom links will be posted over the weekend.

  • The weather forecast indicates a chance of 6" or more of snow from early Sunday AM to Monday.

Probability of Snow Accumulation (Percentage)

  • 5%: New York regions with lower chances

  • 10% - 100%: Various regions specified with the following percentages:

    • Ticonderoga: 6%

    • Niagara Falls: 50%

    • Buffalo: 60%

    • Olean: 69%

    • Saint Marys: 78%

    • Shiloh: 57%

    • Rutland: 46%

    • Oswego: 57%

    • Camden: 59%

    • Queensbury: 53%

    • Oneida: 60%

    • Rochester: 57%

    • Syracuse: 67%

    • Utica: 61%

    • Saratoga Springs: 57%

    • Geneva: 65%

    • Hamilton: 64%

    • Geneseo: 63%

    • Penn Yan: 76%

    • Hornell: 68%

    • Ithaca: 72%

    • Albany: 71%

    • Oneonta: 75%

    • Pittsfield: 69%

    • Elmira: 75%

    • Binghamton: 69%

    • Mansfield: 76%

    • Williamsport: 80%

    • Scranton: 89%

    • Sparta: 83%

    • Kingston: 86%

    • Newburgh: 88%

    • Waterbury: 93%

    • Bridgeport: 82%

    • State College: 83%

    • Sunbury: 84%

    • Hazleton: 97%

    • New York City: High probabilities noted

Learning Objectives

  1. Understand the scientific method.

  2. Differentiate between independent and dependent variables.

  3. Learn how to set up hypotheses.

Fundamental Questions in Science

  • How does the world work?

  • Historically, human understanding of the world has often come from experience (example: identifying poisonous berries or predicting colder weather).

Historical Foundations of Natural Philosophy

Aristotle's Contributions

  • Described and explained natural phenomena.

  • Used the term science differently compared to the modern understanding of the scientific method.

  • Proposed four elements: earth, water, air, fire.

  • Observed the water cycle and documented structure and function among species, leading to a classification system (384-322 BC).

Aristotle’s Animal Hierarchy

  • Animals with Blood:

    • Quadruped

    • Birds

    • Whales

    • Fish

  • Animals without Blood:

    • Insects

    • Cephalopods

    • Crustaceans

    • Shelled Animals

    • Zoophytes

Changes During the Renaissance

  • Invention of key tools: the microscope, telescope, and printing press.

  • Advancements by scientists like Galileo and Newton challenged many Aristotelian notions.

The Scientific Method Steps

  1. Identify Question: Define the research question to investigate.

  2. Form Testable Hypothesis: Create a hypothesis that can be tested.

  3. Consult Prior Knowledge: Review existing literature and knowledge.

  4. Collect Data: Gather information through experiments or observations.

  5. Interpret Results: Analyze the collected data.

  6. Report for Peer Review: Share findings with the scientific community.

  7. Publish Findings: Contribute to scientific literature.

Principles Driving the Scientific Method

Table 2.1 Basic Principles of Science

  1. Empiricism: Learning about the world through careful observation of real and observable phenomena.

  2. Uniformitarianism: Basic patterns and processes are constant over time; contemporary forces have shaped the world historically and will continue to do so.

  3. Parsimony: The simpler explanation is preferred when two hypotheses are equally reasonable; also referred to as Ockham's razor.

  4. Uncertainty: Scientific knowledge evolves as new evidence appears; theories must be adaptable.

  5. Repeatability: Experiments should yield consistent results for their conclusions to be valid.

  6. Proof is Elusive: Absolute certainty is rare; scientific theories should remain open to challenge.

  7. Testable Questions: Theories must be empirically testable to validate their accuracy.

Variables in Experiments

Independent and Dependent Variables

  • Independent Variable: The cause or factor that is manipulated; can predict the dependent variable's value.

  • Dependent Variable: The effect that is measured in response to changes in the independent variable.

Example

  • Statement: "Grapes make my parrot happy."

  • Independent Variable: Grapes

  • Dependent Variable: Parrot's happiness

More Relevant Example

  • Independent Variable: Dissolved oxygen

  • Dependent Variable: Biodiversity levels

Data Presentation

Oxygen Solubility

  • Dissolved oxygen measurements expressed in mg/liter against various temperatures (°C).

Carbon Emissions and Vehicle Age

  • Graph Representation includes:

    • Emission factors: Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

  • Data plotted against vehicle age in years.

Scientific Models

  • Definition: A simplified representation of an environmental system used for understanding complexities.

  • Notable Representation: Often represented through equations.

The Goal of Theories in Science

  • Theories: A well-substantiated explanation supported by a large body of evidence.

  • Examples:

    • Theory of Evolution: The concept that organisms more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to species evolution and divergence.

    • Atomic Theory: Asserts that matter is composed of molecules, which consist of atoms made up of nuclei and electrons.

Discussion Points

  • Question posed: Do you think science is disconnected from everyday life or not? What scientific methods do you apply in your daily experiences?

Next Week's Assignments

  • Read textbook chapters 3-5.

Additional Notes

  • Terrain reference for class location: Salt Springs State Park, summit elevation 1800 ft.