EM

Reinforcement (Chapter 4) - Key Concepts

Defining Reinforcement

  • Reinforcement is a basic principle of behavior established by Skinner in laboratory research and extended to over 40 years of human research; it is a component of many (most) Behavior Modification procedures.
  • A behavior occurs and is immediately followed by a consequence that strengthens the behavior, making it more likely to occur again in similar circumstances.
    • Present: Behavior is followed by a consequence
    • Future: Behavior is more likely to occur

Effects of Reinforcement on Behavior

  • Increases in various dimensions when reinforced appropriately:
    • Frequency
    • Duration
    • Intensity
    • Quickness (decrease in latency)
  • You get more of whatever the reinforcer is contingent on

Example: Grocery Store Crying

  • A child cries at the grocery store and the parent gives the child candy.
  • Result: Increase in frequency, intensity, and duration of crying at the store; behavior is strengthened and more likely to occur in the future.

Quick Check: Reinforcement or Not?

  • The slides prompt you to decide whether a given scenario involves reinforcement.

Quiz Scenarios ( Reinforcement or not? )

  • Guy taunts girl and gets slapped; guy keeps taunting girl in future → Reinforcement: Yes
  • Kid answers question correctly and gets praise → Reinforcement: Not clearly indicated; we don’t know if the behavior strengthened
  • Mom asks kid nicely to make bed, kid makes bed, mom continues to ask nicely to make bed → Reinforcement: Yes
  • Mom nags kid to make bed, kid complies, mom less likely to nag → Reinforcement: No (the behavior was less likely to occur)
  • Man chooses lottery ticket from a specific gas station, wins lottery, continues to buy lottery tickets from the same gas station → Reinforcement: Yes
  • Boy sticks fork in toaster and gets shock, and is more likely to stick fork in toaster → Reinforcement: Yes
  • Teenager plays music loud, mom comes into his room and sits by him and asks how his day was, kid less likely to play music loud → Reinforcement: No (behavior less likely to occur)
  • Alarm goes off, you slap the off button, and aversive alarm sound is terminated → Reinforcement: Not clearly indicated (future strengthening not specified)

What is Operant Behavior?

  • Operant behavior is behavior that is strengthened through the process of reinforcement and is controlled by its consequences.
  • Example: Andy answers a question in class and is praised by the teacher; as a result, Andy is more likely to answer questions in class. Andy’s behavior of answering questions in class is referred to as operant behavior.

What is Operant Behavior? (Key Points)

  • Operant behavior is strengthened through reinforcement.
  • The consequence that strengthens an operant behavior is a reinforcer.

What is a Reinforcer?

  • The consequence (stimulus or event) that follows operant behavior and strengthens operant behavior.

You Reinforce Behavior, Not People

  • Reinforcement is a process; reinforcer is a thing.
  • Reward vs reinforcers: terminology notes.

Two Types of Reinforcement

  • Positive reinforcement
  • Negative reinforcement
  • Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement strengthen behavior and make the behavior more likely to occur in the future.

Positive Reinforcement

  • Definition: Behavior is followed by the presentation of a stimulus (a reinforcer) and the behavior is strengthened.

Visual: Reinforcement Flow (Pleasant vs Unpleasant; Apply vs Remove)

  • Positive Reinforcement: Pleasant stimulus applied after behavior (Apply reinforcer) to strengthen behavior.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Unpleasant stimulus removed after behavior (Remove aversive stimulus) to strengthen behavior.

Negative Reinforcement? (Definition)

  • A behavior is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus.
  • Example: When Matt makes a 3-point shot, his coach makes him run one less lap in practice → The removal of the run is the negative reinforcement that strengthens the shot behavior.

Escape and Avoidance Behaviors (Negative Reinforcement)

  • Escape: The behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus and the behavior is strengthened.
    • Example: Children tantrum when they don’t want to do something, and parents back off.
  • Avoidance: The behavior prevents the presentation of an aversive stimulus and the behavior is strengthened.
    • Example: You come home on time so that you are not grounded by your parents.

Escape and Avoidance (Further Details)

  • In escape behavior, the occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus (stop speeding on the highway to escape a ticket).
  • In avoidance behavior, the occurrence of the behavior prevents the presentation of an aversive stimulus (drive below the speed limit to avoid a ticket).

Your First Question (Conceptual)

  • Purpose of behavior vs. behavior itself (terminology exercise from the slides)

Operant Conditioning Summary (Slide Highlight)

  • Positive Reinforcement vs Negative Reinforcement
  • Pleasant vs Unpleasant; Apply vs Remove; Behavior vs Purpose
  • Ex: Reward; Ex: Escape-Avoid

Everyday Examples of Negative and Positive Reinforcement

  • Push the power button on the TV remote to turn on the TV → Positive reinforcement
  • Put on a coat on a cold day → Negative reinforcement (removal of cold)
  • Use an umbrella → Negative reinforcement (removal of rain discomfort)
  • Slap a mosquito → Negative reinforcement (removal of mosquito bite annoyance)
  • Turn up the volume on your iPod → Positive reinforcement
  • Close the window when it rains → Negative reinforcement
  • Wear earplugs on a noisy job → Negative reinforcement
  • Composing an e-mail to connect with someone → Positive reinforcement (social/functional reward)
  • Turn on the exhaust fan → Negative reinforcement (removal of heat/odors)
  • Click on the “Explorer” icon and get to the internet → Positive reinforcement (access/achievement)
  • Turn off the alarm buzzer → Negative reinforcement (removal of alarm noise)
  • Give in to a screaming kid → Negative reinforcement (removal of distress for the caregiver, though the kid is reinforced)
  • Screaming kid gets a treat in a store → Positive reinforcement (reinforces crying)
  • Tell someone to be quiet in a movie → Negative reinforcement (reduces noise/disruption)
  • Screaming kid gets a treat in a store (repeat) → Positive reinforcement
  • Tell someone to be quiet in a movie → Negative reinforcement

Positive and Negative Reinforcement in the Same Situation

  • Tantrum in a grocery store: Child’s tantrum is strengthened by getting candy from a parent (positive reinforcement for the tantrum).
  • The parent’s behavior of giving candy is strengthened by the termination of the tantrum (negative reinforcement for stopping the tantrum).

Unconditioned Reinforcers

  • Biologically determined; survival value for the individual.
  • Examples: Food, water, human contact (warmth), oxygen, sexual contact, escape from cold, heat, pain, extreme stimulation.
  • Is money an unconditioned reinforcer? No; money is not biologically pre-wired and is a conditioned reinforcer.

Conditioned Reinforcers

  • A previously neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with an established reinforcer will function as a reinforcer.
  • Examples: Sight, sound, and scent of parents; Parents’ smile, tone of voice, attention, praise; Types of toys, TV shows, music, clothes, activities; Grades, positive evaluations; Accomplishments (social, physical); Money; Others

Conditioned Generalized Reinforcers

  • Paired with a wide variety of other reinforcers
  • Examples: Money, praise, tokens

Factors that Influence Reinforcement

  • Immediacy
  • Consistency (contingency)
  • Individual differences
  • Intensity of the stimulus
  • Concurrent schedule of reinforcement or punishment

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Specifies which responses will be followed by the reinforcer
  • Continuous reinforcement: Each response is followed by the reinforcer
  • Intermittent reinforcement: Not every response is followed by a reinforcer

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

  • Reinforcer after a fixed number of responses; the number does not change
  • Produces a high rate of responding with a post-reinforcement pause
  • Example: For every 10 cars you sell, you get a 500 dollar bonus

Variable-Ratio Schedule

  • Reinforcer after a number of responses on average (the exact number varies around the average)
  • Produces a high rate of responding with no post-reinforcement pause
  • Example: Slot machine; phone solicitor does not know the number of calls required to make a sale

Fixed-Interval Schedule

  • Reinforcer for the first response after a fixed amount of time
  • Time interval does not change
  • Produces a low rate of responding that increases toward the end of the interval
  • Examples: Public bathroom cleaned every 2 hours; hourly supervisor checks on a worker

Variable-Interval Schedule

  • Reinforcer for the first response after a variable amount of time on average
  • Produces a low but steady rate of behavior
  • Examples: Unpredictable supervisor checks; checking for phone or e-mail messages

Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Schedules that exist at the same time for two or more different behaviors
  • Concurrent operants
  • Factors influencing choice of concurrent operants:
    • Schedule of reinforcement
    • Magnitude of reinforcement
    • Immediacy of reinforcement
    • Response effort