9.1-9.7

WWII and the Post-War Settlements (1945-1950)

Contextualization - WWII Conferences

• Atlantic Conference:
  • Established an 8-point charter.
  • Aimed to prevent the rise of dictatorships.
• Tehran Conference:
  • Opened a second front in the war.
• Yalta Conference:
  • The Soviet Union pledged to assist in the war against Japan.
  • Planned for the invasion and division of Germany.
• Potsdam Conference:
  • Confirmed the plans established at Yalta.
  • Addressed the invasion of Japan.

Occupation

• By the end of 1945, Allied powers initiated the occupation of both Japan and Germany.
• Germany was divided into four zones.
• In Southeast Asia, colonial powers reclaimed their former territories.
• Korea was divided at the 38th Parallel.
• The United States, under General MacArthur, oversaw Japan's transition to a constitutional monarchy.
• The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 diverted MacArthur's attention to Korea.
• The occupation of Japan ended with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty on September 8, 1951, officially concluding World War II in the Pacific.

Division of Germany and Austria

• Germany and Austria were divided into four occupation zones controlled by the American, British, French, and Soviet forces.
• The Soviet Union controlled 1/3 of Germany, while the remaining 2/3 was divided among France, the US, and the UK.
• Berlin and Vienna were similarly divided.
• The initial plan for Germany was to govern it as a single unit. However, this plan failed, leading to the formation of two separate nations.

Germany Territorial Losses as Result of WWII

• Territories were given to Lithuania and Poland.
• Some areas were annexed by the Soviet Union.
• Austria regained its independence.

Truman Doctrine

• Aimed to provide aid to Turkey and Greece to prevent communist revolutions.
• Announced in March 1947, declaring the U.S. policy to support free people resisting subjugation by armed minorities.

The Marshall Plan

• Launched in 1947, also known as the "European Recovery Program."
• Focused on providing funds to rebuild European nations.
• Created by U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall.
• Provided 12.5 billion in U.S. aid to Western Europe, fostering economic recovery.
• Stalin responded with COMECON.

Clement Attlee & The Labour Party: 1945-1951

• The Labour Party won the elections in July 1945, making Clement Attlee the new Prime Minister, who represented the UK at the Potsdam Conference.
• He led the UK through a slow economic recovery after WWII.
• Focused on domestic issues and allowed the colonies to begin transitioning to independence.

Attlee’s Achievements

• Implemented social programs to create a modern welfare state.
• Passed the National Insurance Act & National Health Service Act.
• Socialized medicine provided free national health care.
• Britain faced debt, with conservatives blaming the welfare state; however, Britain was still paying off loans from the war.

The Cold War

The United Nations

• The United Nations replaced the League of Nations.
• Headquartered in New York City.
• The General Assembly gave each member state one vote.
• The Security Council had 11 members (later 15 in 1965).
  • The United States, the United Kingdom, the USSR, France, & China were permanent members with veto powers.
  • Other 6 members (later 10) were selected on a rotating basis.

United Nations

• The UN became a debating ground during the Cold War, notably during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
• Unlike the League of Nations, the UN can send peacekeepers, known for their blue helmets.
• The UN adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
  • Includes the right to a fair trial.
  • Freedoms of assembly & speech.
  • Right to education, adequate living standards, and participation in cultural life.

East Germany

• In 1949, the Soviet-occupied eastern zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR).
• The capital was Berlin (East Berlin).
• 1948-1949: Soviets shut down roads to Berlin, leading the U.S. to airlift goods into West Berlin.

The Arms Race

• The Soviets successfully exploded their first A-bomb in 1949.
• Great Britain followed in 1952, with France and China exploding theirs in the 1960s, and Israel in the 1970s.
• The widespread possession of mass destruction capabilities changed the approach to conflict, leading to Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).

New Competitions

• Sputnik I was launched in 1957.
• The U-2 Pilot Francis Gary Powers was shot down when flying over the Soviet Union.
• Eventually, he was exchanged for a Soviet spy in Berlin.

The USSR and Cuba

• Khrushchev gained a significant advantage when Cuba became communist under Fidel Castro.
• The U.S. attempted to overthrow Castro with the Bay of Pigs invasion, which failed.
• The Soviets began placing missiles in Cuba, triggering the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Cuban Missile Crisis

• On October 18, 1962, the USSR agreed to remove missiles from Cuba if the U.S. removed missiles from Turkey.
• Communication was conducted in secret.
• Khrushchev's removal of missiles was seen as a failure, leading to a loss of respect and ultimately allowing Brezhnev to take power.

Korea

• At the end of WWII, Japan surrendered at the 38th parallel.
• American troops occupied the south, while Soviet troops occupied the north, dividing Korea.

The Korean War

• In June 1950, with Stalin & Mao’s permission, North Korea invaded South Korea.
• General MacArthur led the UN army, primarily composed of U.S. soldiers, against the north.
• The peace settlement maintained the borders but did not officially end the war.

French Colonial Independence

• After World War II, French Indochina (modern-day Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos) sought independence.
• France wanted to retain Indochina and redeployed its military.
• The Viet Minh fought against the French for their independence.
• Vietnam was split during the 1954 treaty negotiations.

The Vietnam War

• The United States sent weapons and military support from 1961-1973.
• By 1969, 500,000 American troops were in Vietnam.
• In January 1968, during the Tet Offensive, North Vietnamese forces launched a surprise attack on cities in the south, causing a loss of morale for American troops.

End of the War

• In 1973, America began withdrawing troops.
• The last of the U.S. personnel were evacuated in 1975 from the roof of the American embassy in Saigon.
• Saigon fell in 1975, and the country was reunited as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976.
• Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.

Yom Kippur War

• In 1973, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel.
• The U.S. sent aid to Israel, while the Soviet Union supported Syria and Egypt.
• The war lasted 20 days, and Israel won.

The Invasion of Afghanistan

• The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
• The United States responded by not signing the second Strategic Arms Agreement, placing a grain embargo on Soviet wheat, and boycotting the 1980 Summer Olympics.
• The U.S. also sent aid to Afghan rebels.
• The Soviet invasion failed and was considered the USSR’s Vietnam.

Non-aligned Nations

• Many decolonized nations opted not to take sides in the Cold War and formed the Non-Aligned Movement, including India, Indonesia, and Yugoslavia.

Two Superpowers Emerge

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

• Western nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) for collective security.
• Eastern nations formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955 for collective security.
• COMECON (Council of Mutual Assistance).

World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• The goal is to foster global monetary cooperation with its 188 member nations.
• Works to facilitate international trade, promotes economic growth and higher employment rates, seeks financial stability, and desires to reduce poverty around the globe.
  • The World Bank gives loans to countries.
  • The IMF helps to stabilize currencies.

GATT and WTO

• General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT):
  • Reduced barriers to trade.
  • Worked with the UN.
  • Ensured no country had a trade advantage.
• World Trade Organization (WTO):
  • Replaced GATT in 1995.
  • Comprises 164 member nations.
  • Controls about 96% of international trade.
  • Aims for smooth trade flow and resolves problems between countries.

Communism in Eastern Europe

• Stalin agreed to allow free elections in eastern and central Europe; however, communist regimes were set up regardless of election results.
• Stalin formed Cominform to spread communism.
• After the Soviets expelled the democratically elected government in Czechoslovakia, it became clear that multiparty political systems would not be allowed in Eastern Europe.

Soviet Bloc

• All of Eastern Europe fell under the Soviet sphere of influence.
• Churchill referred to it as the Iron Curtain.
• Soviet Bloc countries = Soviet satellite countries.

Yugoslavia

• Yugoslavia established a pro-Communist government under Tito but did not seek support from the USSR.
• Communist leader Tito maintained a “mixed” economy and accepted Marshall Plan money.
• The private sector coexisted with state planning & collectivization.

The Berlin Wall

• On August 13, 1961, Berliners woke up to find a wall being constructed on the border between East and West Berlin.
• Travel between East and West Germany was restricted to stop workers from leaving the east for the west.
• JFK spoke at the Berlin Wall in 1963.

Stalin’s Successor

• Stalin had a stroke and died in 1953.
• The USSR attempted a “Collective leadership” consisting of a 14-person Presidium.
• In 1955, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader of the Soviet Union and distanced himself from Stalinist policies through De-Stalinization.

De-Stalinization - Political

• Greater expression by artists and writers.
• Reduced the power of the secret police.
• Released some political prisoners.
• Allowed people to read what they wanted.

De-Stalinization - Economic

• Reduced the workweek to 40 hours.
• Allowed workers to move and change jobs.
• Decentralized agricultural decisions.

East German Revolt

• Following Stalin’s death in 1953, East German workers protested low wages, work quotas, & food shortages.
• Berlin workers rioted on June 17, 1953, but the revolt was crushed by Soviet tanks.
• Repression followed, and any recognition of the anniversary of the revolt could result in arrest.

Poland in 1956

• Poland rejected the Soviet choice for Prime Minister and appointed Wladyslaw Gomulka.
• The Soviets accepted him as leader because he was a Communist.
• Demonstrated some autonomy within the eastern bloc nations.

Hungarian Uprising of 1956

• On October 23, 1956, protesters smashed statues of Stalin and tried to take over radio stations.
• The movement was largely run by intellectuals and college students.
• Imre Nagy was named the new prime minister of Hungary.
• He declared an end to the one-party system & called for the withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact.

The Uprising

• This was the first major test for Soviet premier Khrushchev.
• He sent in tanks to prevent Hungary from leaving the Warsaw Pact.
• Nagy was captured and executed along with 2,000 others.
• Janos Kadar took over but brought in relaxed economic and governmental controls known as “Goulash Communism.”
• Radio Liberty stated the USA would help them, but they didn’t.

Prague Spring - 1968

• Communist Party leader Alexander Dubcek attempted to institute reforms within Czechoslovakia, allowing for a more democratic system and freedom of expression.
• Tanks rolled in on August 21, 1968.
• The leader of the Soviet Union issued the “Brezhnev Doctrine,” justifying the use of force in Czechoslovakia and potentially in other satellite states if they revolted.

Gorbachev

• Gorbachev was elected the new general secretary of the communist party in 1985 and introduced reforms in the form of glasnost and perestroika.
• He knew that restructuring was essential to prevent the nation's collapse.

The Reforms

• Perestroika restructured the economy by allowing some private ownership of property and moving towards a free market system.
• Glasnost or openness allowed for free expression and less censorship of the press and works.
• Dissidents were released from prison.
• Gorbachev was popular and was elected president in 1989 due to the reforms but could not stop the push for nations to break off from the USSR.

Postwar Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Atrocities

Ireland

• 1920s: Ireland and Northern Ireland split.
• 1960s-1980s: Catholics in Northern Ireland launched a Civil Rights movement.
• The IRA split into factions, one advocating violence and reunification with Ireland, the other (Unionists) wanting to stay with the UK.
• Britain took Northern Ireland under direct control for a period.
• Settlements came in 1999 and 2007.

Basque

• A group of people in Northern Spain and Southern France.
• Franco removed their autonomy.
• The ETA group was formed to create an independent Basque state and formally disbanded in 2018.

Belgium

• Two ethnic groups in Belgium:
  • Flemish: ½ population in the North, speak Flemish, minority in Parliament.
  • Walloons: ⅓ population in the South, speak French, majority in Parliament.

Yugoslavia

• After Tito’s death, nationalists wanted to create separate nations, including Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia.
• Serbia did not want these areas to leave and drove out or killed Muslims from their region.
• A peace agreement was settled in 1995.

Chechnya

• A Muslim area in southwest Russia.
• Nationalists opposed Russian control, leading to a Russian invasion.
• 100,000 Chechens were killed, and 400,000 were made homeless.
• The conflict was resolved in 1997, but Russians returned from 1999-2003.

Contemporary Western Democracies

Increasing Wealth in Europe

• As wealth increased with the good economy, not everyone had the same access to the wealth.
• Governments wanted to reduce the risk of rebellion by providing more services to more people.

The Need to Come Together

• After World War II, a new philosophy promoted working together to prevent war in Europe.
• A first step was to unite essential items, including steel and energy for factories and transportation.

European Coal and Steel Community

• Six Western European nations agreed to unite their coal and steel industries: Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
• Lasted until 2002.

European Economic Community

• The six countries expanded with the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC).
• They sought to create a common market to ensure free trade, end custom duties, and eventually end border checks.
• They were looking to how the United States worked with transit between the states.
• The EEC proved to be a success. By 1968, it was ahead of schedule with ending tariffs among member states. Other nations sought to join the community, and it expanded.

Welfare Programs

• Britain elected the Labour Party as the majority party - new Prime Minister Clement Atlee.
• 1946 Laws:
  • Subsidized health care.
  • Unemployment insurance.
  • Old-age pensions.
  • Cradle to grave social welfare programs.

Pushback to Welfare Programs

• These programs created higher taxes and high government spending.
• The good economy began to fade in the 1970s, making people more resistant to the high taxes.
• More spending was needed as people lost jobs, leading to division in society.

Conservative Government of the 1980s

• In England, the Conservatives won back Parliament, and Margaret Thatcher was elected Prime Minister.

Conservative Government of the 1980s

• Thatcher’s changes to the welfare state:
  • She kept most health and welfare programs (entitlement programs) but overall cut spending.
  • Slowed inflation.
  • Hurt some of the industrial north (coal mining).
  • Privatized airlines, telecommunications, steel, and gas industries.

Fall of Communism

DÉTENTE

• Nixon and Brezhnev began the thaw by agreeing to reduce the number of nuclear arms.
• The Helsinki Accord officially recognized the Soviet sphere in Eastern Europe.
• President Jimmy Carter and the Soviets continued to make deals to reduce arms (SALT).

PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN

• Reagan intensified Cold War rhetoric and sought to outspend the Soviet Union, thus hurting them economically.
• He announced plans for a Strategic Defense Initiative.
• The Soviets were not financially stable in the 1980s.
• Increased military spending led to economic turmoil they could not recover from.

THE FALL OF COMMUNISM

• 3 factors converged for the fall of communism:
  • Nationalist movements in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, Moldavia, Armenia & Georgia.
  • Forceful democratic movements led by instrumental citizens.
  • Economic crisis beginning in 1988 increased the number of Soviet citizens convinced the economy could not improve their quality of life.

COMMUNISM IN POLAND

• Pope John Paul II was Polish and an outspoken critic of communism, especially in eastern Europe.
• Protests and strikes started in Poland as a response to the rising cost of meat, led by Lech Walesa.
• In September 1980, the Polish Communist Party was replaced by independent union called Solidarity.
• In 1981, General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law and arrested leaders of the Solidarity movement.

POLAND

• New demonstrations started in 1987 over prices & a call for the legalization of Solidarity.
• Eventually, the government allowed free elections.
• The Soviets under Gorbachev were no longer going to send in tanks.
• Solidarity swept to victory & created a new government and constitution.
• In December 1990, former Solidarity leader, Walesa was elected president.

HUNGARY

• In 1989, Hungary allowed for free elections, and the Democratic Forum won. The Communist party tried to implement reforms but were forced out.
• Transition was peaceful.
• This put pressure on East Germany as now people could travel to Hungary to get out of the east. Soon East Germany blocked all international travel.

EAST GERMANY

• The East German party leaders stood firm even after President Ronald Reagan stated, "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!"
• When protests started, leader Erich Honecker tried to stop them, but the police refused to carry out his orders. He tried to call up the military, but official orders were not given nor carried out.
• He was forced out & Egon Krenz took over leadership of East Germany (still a Communist and unpopular).

FALL OF THE WALL

• November 9, 1989 – The Berlin Wall was opened and later ordered the Berlin Wall to be torn down.
• East and West Germany then started to discuss unification.
• Free elections were held; the conservatives who advocated a reunification with the West won easily.
• Germany was reunified on October 3, 1990, with Helmuth Kohl as the Chancellor.
• Berlin became the capital of the united Germany in 1999.

THE VELVET REVOLUTION

• Czechoslovakia also saw demonstrations grow as people advocated for governmental changes.
• Police beat the original demonstrators, which led to strikes throughout Prague and more people joining the movement.
• People called for free elections.

Peaceful Split

• December 10, 1989, the first non-Communist government since 1948 was sworn in.
• On January 1, 1993, the urban, Protestant Czech Republic and rural, Catholic Slovakia separated into 2 countries.

THE SOVIET UNION COLLAPSES

• In 1989 – Gorbachev stated other parties could run in elections.
• 1990: three major political groups vied for power:
  • The Conservatives wanted to keep the Communist Party and Soviet army in place.
  • The Reformers led by Gorbachev & Boris Yeltsin wanted to move quickly to a market economy and democracy or a socialist democracy.
  • Nationalists wanted certain areas to break off from the Soviet Union (Estonia, Latvia, Uzbekistan…).

THE END OF SOVIET RULE

• Mikhail Gorbachev ushered in reforms and also decided that the USSR would no longer intervene in Soviet bloc nations.
• People on the right and left were dissatisfied with what was happening.
  • The Right thought it was going too far.
  • The Left thought it was not not far enough or fast enough.

BORIS YELTSIN

• Boris Yeltsin quickly moved away from communism as he knew it was over.
• In June 1991, Yeltsin was elected president of the “Russian Federation.”
• Gorbachev was seized in an attempted coup in 1991 but was freed; however, his time in power was over, and he stepped down in December.