History 4 chapter US History H
THE AMERICAN REVOLTUION
CONDITIONS AT THE START
General Thomas Gage: commander in chief of all British forces in North America
Appointed governor of Massachusetts
Had 4,000 troops in Boston
British did not believe other colonies would help Massachusetts
House of Commons voted 270 to 78 against conciliating the colonies
“THE SHOT HEARD ROUND THE WORLD”
January 1775 Parliament decided to use troops but order did not reach Gage until April
Parliament voted new troop levies
Declared Massachusetts to be in rebellion
Massachusetts Patriots
Formed extralegal provincial assembly
Reorganized militia
Began training “minute men” and other fighters
April 18 Gage sent 700 troops to collect arms stored at Concord
Paul Revere and others
70 Minute Men at Lexington
Destroyed any supplies left at Concord
Redcoats picked off by militiamen on return to Boston
1,500 more troops
British: 273 casualties; Americans: fewer than 100
Massachusetts captured Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain
Other colonies sent reinforcements
THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
May 10, 1775: Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia
Members included: John and Sam Adams, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and Benjamin Franklin
John Hancock chosen President of Congress
Organized forces around Boston into Continental Army and appointed George Washington commander
THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL
Actually Battle of Breed’s Hill (June 17)
Redcoats marched up three times to unseat artillery (only succeeded because Americans ran out of ammunition)
Colonists cleared out of Charleston peninsula
British lost more than 1,000 out of 2,500; Continentals lost 400
Gage replaced with General William Howe
Colonies proclaimed in rebellion
CONGRESSIONAL REACTION
Adopted “Declaration of Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms” which condemned everything British had done since 1763
Ordered an attack on Canada
Created committees to seek foreign aid and to buy munitions abroad
Authorized outfitting of navy under Commodore Esek Hopkins of Rhode Island
THE GREAT DECLARATION
Colonists concerned about final break
Traditions, language, history, etc. tied them to Britain
Concerned what “lower” classes might do with independence
Concern over whether common people really could govern themselves
January 1776: moved to break by two events
News British were sending hired Hessian soldiers
Publication of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
COMMON SENSE
Called for complete independence
Attacked the very idea of a monarchy
Virtually everyone in colonies read it or heard it discussed
March 1776: Congress unleashed privateers against British commerce
April: opened American ports to foreign shipping
May: urged states to frame constitutions and establish state governments
THE GREAT DECLARATION
June 7 Richard Henry Lee introduced resolution stating that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States….”
Passed July 2
Committee: Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston
Slightly modified draft written by Thomas Jefferson adopted by Congress as Declaration of Independence on July 4
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
Declaration had two parts:
First, introductory part, justified the abstract right of any people to revolt and described the theory on which Americans based creation of new nation
Second section was a list of the injuries and injustices perpetrated by George III
Interference with the functioning of representative government in America
Harsh administration of colonial affairs
Restrictions on civil rights
Maintenance of troops in the colonies without their consent
1776: THE BALANCE OF FORCES
Factors in favor of Americans
British army was as inefficient and ill directed as rest of British government
Reluctance among British to engage in both violence and cost of war
Seemed risky to send best troops to America with European rivals still smarting from defeat
MILITARY ACTIONS
Howe withdrew from Boston when Washington fortified Dorchester Heights
General Richard Montgomery captured Montreal in November 1775
Failed to capture Quebec in December
July 2: Howe landed 32,000 men at Staten Island while fleet under his brother Richard, floated off the coast
BRITISH ADVANTAGES
Population of 9 million compared to 2.5 million for colonists
Large stocks of war materials
Industrial capacity to increase war materials
Mastery of the seas
Well-trained and experienced army
Highly centralized and ruthless government
AMERICAN DISADVANTAGES
Money and tools of war were continually in short supply
Soldiers had few weapons or proper uniforms
Most did not want to conform to military discipline
Washington had to create an army organization while fighting a war
Supply problems were handled inefficiently and corruptly
No knowledge about how to construct and maintain sanitary facilities
LOYALISTS
John Adams’ estimate: 1/3 ardent patriots, 1/3 loyalists, 1/3 neutral or flexible
Historians think about 2/5 Patriots and 1/5 Loyalists
Loyalists:
High proportion of those holding royal appointments and many Anglican clergymen
Pockets of Tory strength in rural sections of New York, in North Carolina back country
Among persons of non-English origin and other minority groups who tended to count on London for protection against local majority
Many were Tories out of distaste for change or because pessimistic about the condition of society and possibility of improving it
Others did not believe British actions justified rebellion
Tories lacked organization
When revolutionaries took over a colony:
Some Tories fled
Others sought the protection of the British Army
Others took up arms
Some accommodated themselves to new regime
EARLY BRITISH VICTORIES
Battle of Long Island: Howe defeated Washington’s Army but Howe hesitated and Washington escaped
Howe attacked New York City and Washington withdrew to Harlem Heights and eventually New Jersey
Washington attacked Hessian troops at Trenton, New Jersey, on Christmas day and scored a morale boosting victory
SARATOGA AND THE FRENCH ALLIANCE
April 1777: Washington had fewer than 5,000 men under arms
Complicated plan to trap Patriots and isolate New England states was a fiasco
John Burgoyne’s troops heading south from Canada (500 Indians, 650 Loyalists, 6,000 regulars) bogged down
Leger left Fort Oswego late and was driven back by Benedict Arnold
Howe did not follow plan either and Clinton turned back for reinforcements
October 17, 1777: Burgoyne and 5,700 British troops surrendered at Saratoga
American victory at Saratoga led to French backing, which probably would have come anyway
May 1776 French had authorized 1 million livres for munitions for America and added more the next year
Spain contributed because of hatred of British
French-American treaty of amity and commerce
British were willing to give in to colonial demands of 1775 but did not reach Philadelphia until June 1778, a month after Congress ratified French treaty
VALLEY FORGE
After losing Philadelphia to Howe in September 1777, Washington had settled into winter camp at Valley Forge
Supply system collapsed
Soldiers suffered hunger and cold
Continental army melted away during winter
Those who remained became a seasoned professional army
THE WAR MOVES SOUTH
May 1778: Howe replaced as commander with General Clinton who transferred base to New York
Washington attacked him during move and claimed victory in an indecisive battle at Monmouth Court House
British strategy changed:
Fighting in northern states degenerated into skirmishes and small unit clashes
British concentrated their efforts in South Carolina and Georgia
Late 1778: Savannah fell to British
1779: most of settled parts of Georgia were overrun
1780: Clinton attacked Charleston which surrendered in May (3,000 colonial soldiers were captured)
Clinton left General Cornwallis and 8,000 troops and returned to New York
Callous behavior of British troops spurred spots of resistance throughout occupied areas
Spanish Victories:
1779: Spanish governor of Louisiana defeated British troops in Florida
1780 and 1781 captured British-held ports of Pensacola and Mobile
June 1780: Congress put Horatio Gates in charge of southern army consisting of irregular militia and hard core of Continentals transferred from Washington’s command
His failure led to replacement by General Nathanael Greene
Greene divided troops and staged a series of raids on scattered points
January 1781: Battle of Cowpens, British suffered painful defeat
Cornwallis chased Greene but lost again at Battle of Guilford Courthouse
When Cornwallis withdrew to Wilmington, North Carolina so could be re-supplied by navy, Greene regained control of Carolina backcountry
VICTORY AT YORKTOWN
Cornwallis marched north to Virginia where he joined forces with troops under Benedict Arnold who had defected to the British in 1780
Clinton ordered Cornwallis to establish base at Yorktown where he could be supplied by sea
Washington worked with Comte de Rochambeau and his French troops in Newport, Rhode Island, and Admiral François de Grasse and his West Indian Fleet to bottle up Cornwallis at Yorktown
De Grasse defeated the British fleet under Admiral Thomas Graves
Washington tricked Clinton into thinking he was attacking New York then he headed south and reached Yorktown in September
There he joined with troops under Lafayette and troops from de Grasse’s fleet to total 17,000 troops
October 17 Cornwallis asked for terms and surrendered his 7,000 troops on October 19
THE PEACE OF PARIS
British gave up trying to suppress American rebellion
National debt had doubled since 1775
March 1782 Lord North resigned and was replaced by Lord Rockingham who was prepared to negotiate with the colonists
S. and France had promised not to make separate peace
Spain hoped to limit American expansion beyond the Appalachians
French did not want the new country to be too powerful
Continental Congress sent commission to negotiate (with instructions to listen to French Comte de Vergennes)
However, commission realized French had their own interests and hinted to British they would be willing to discuss separate peace
British representative Richard Oswald entered negotiations
November 1782 preliminary treaty was signed
BRITISH AGREEMENTS
Britain agreed that the United States was independent
Boundaries were set at Great Lakes, Mississippi River, and 31° north latitude (roughly northern boundary of Florida, which British turned over to Spain)
Britain recognized right of Americans to fish on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland and dry their catch on unsettled beaches in Labrador and Nova Scotia
Agreed to withdraw troops with “all convenient speed”
AMERICAN AGREEMENTS
Americans said Congress would recommend states reimburse Tories for their seized properties
Promised to prevent further property confiscation and prosecutions of Tories
Agreed not to impede collection of debts owed British subjects
S. achieved terms because representatives were shrewd diplomats and because Britain was concerned with European rivalries
FORMING A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
Early attempts at a constitution floundered
Larger states objected to equal representation
States with large western land claims refused to cede them to the government
November 1777 Articles of Confederation submitted to states for approval (must be unanimous)
Maryland held out until 1781 demanding that Congress had to have ability to determine Western boundary of states
Maryland had land claims based on Indian purchase but Virginia forced them to void these in exchange for giving up their western claims
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION
Each state had one vote
Union was a “league of friendship”
National power was limited
Central government had no authority to impose taxes and no way to enforce the powers it did have
FINANCING THE WAR
Congress and states carried on war cooperatively
General officers appointed by Congress, lesser ones by states
Continental Army supported by Congress, militias by states
States spent $5.8 million in hard currency and met Congress’ demands for beef, corn, rum, fodder, and other military supplies
Congress raised large sums by borrowing
Sold $7 to $8 million in bonds
Borrowed $8 million from foreign governments (mostly France)
Congress issued $240 million in paper money and states issued $200 million
Congress established Departments of Foreign Affairs, War, and Finance
Robert Morris was head of Finance
Set up efficient method of obtaining food and uniforms for the army
Persuaded Congress to charter a National Bank of North America
Got the country on a hard money basis
Obtained new foreign loans
STATE REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENTS
By 1777 all but Rhode Island and Connecticut had written state constitutions
All provided
Elected legislature
Executive
System of courts
Powers of governor and courts were limited (Pennsylvania eliminated office of governor and replaced with elected council of 12)
Power was concentrated in legislature which could
Declare war
Conduct foreign relations
Control the courts
Perform many other essentially executive functions
Voters had to be property owners or taxpayers
People were citizens
Most state constitutions contained a bill of rights that protected the people’s civil liberties
Combined British respect for status, fairness, and due process, with American stress on individualism, and healthy dislike of too much authority
SOCIAL REFORM
Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Virginia, and other states reapportioned legislative seats to give western districts their fair share
Primogeniture, entail, and quitrents were abolished
Steps toward greater freedom of religion were taken
Some states moved tentatively against slavery
SLAVERY
November 1775: Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, proclaimed freedom for all slaves who fought for British
In actual fact treated them like captured property
Some ended up in West Indies, still slaves
Some wound up in Canada and were liberated
Some settled in Sierra Leone in West Africa when it was founded in 1787
5,000 blacks served in the Patriot army and navy
Beginning with Pennsylvania in 1780, the northern states abolished slavery
Though due to structure of law there were still 3,500 slaves in northern states in 1830
All states prohibited slave importation from abroad
Except for South Carolina and Georgia, states removed barriers to owners freeing their slaves
Virginia between 1782 and 1790, as many as 10,000 blacks were freed
CHANGES IN SOCIETY
In the way they dressed, in their manner of speech, in the way they dealt with one another in public places, Americans paid at least lip service to equality
Denounced granting of titles of nobility
No major social redistribution of wealth
New governments were more responsive to public opinion
EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION ON WOMEN
Trend in western world toward increasing legal rights for women, strengthened in U.S. by Declaration of Independence
Easier for women to obtain divorces
Still paternalistic outlook—courts did not take action against Tory women on grounds had to follow husbands
Influence of women was increased
Took over management of businesses and farms while husbands in army
Contributions to winning of independence made them conscious of their importance
Rhetoric of equality affected their outlook
Women’s role training the next generation of citizens necessitated female education
GROWTH OF A NATIONAL SPIRIT
Nationalism was a result of independence
By middle of 18th century colonists had begun to think of themselves as a separate society distinct from Britain
Local ties remained predominant
Nationalism arose from
common sacrifices
war caused many people to move from place to place
practical problems in wake of war that demanded common solutions brought them together
economic developments had unifying effect
THE GREAT LAND ORDINANCE
Land Ordinance of 1785:
provided for surveying of western land in grid pattern of 6 mile square townships
townships divided into 36 sections of 640 acres (1 square mile) each with section 16 reserved for school support
charged $1 per acre which favored speculative land development
Sale by central government was nationalizing force
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Area bound by Ohio, Mississippi, and the Great Lakes was to be carved into not more than 5 and not less than 3 states
Created political structure for territories and phased process for achieving statehood
Congress appointed: territorial governor, secretary, 3 judges
When reached 5,000 adult males those with 50 acres of land could vote for legislature (whose laws subject to veto of governor)
Once had a population of 60,000 could draft constitution an apply for statehood
Had to have “republican” government and could not allow slavery
NATIONAL HEROES - NATIONAL CULTURE
Nationalism fostered by common heroes
Benjamin Franklin
George Washington
Anglican church became Episcopal Church and other churches became independent of European ties
Noah Webster and an “American” language
John M’Culloch published first American history book
King’s College became Columbia in 1784
Jedidiah Morse published American Geography
American Academy of Arts and Sciences founded in Boston
Writers and painters used patriotic themes
Revolutionary generation had a fondness for Greek and Roman architecture which it saw as expressing democratic and republican values