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cientific Notation Converting from scientific to standard Multiplication and division with scientific notation (exponents) https://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/math/scientific-notation-converter.php Fundamentals of Science - Definitions and examples of Facts- an observation or measurement Hypothesis- a testable explanation of an observation Laws- is a series of observations that enables making predictions but has no underlying explanation of why the phenomenon occurs Theories- is a well-developed idea or group of ideas that must agree with known physical laws and make testable predictions of a given phenomenon or system Principles- are general ideas or a sense about the universe that often guides the construction of new theories. Two principles used in studying astronomy are the cosmological principle and Occam’s razor (if two hypotheses fit the facts equally well, the simpler one is more likely to apply.easiest explanation) Sun – Earth – Moon Relationships Seasons – What causes them? When do they happen, time and position of earth relative to sun. - The sun is in the center, the earth revolves around it slightly tilted causing the seasons: warmer in summer bc earth is tilted toward the sun and the light rays are hitting the surface of the earth more directly, the days are longer, in the winter it is colder because the earth is tilted away from the sun, less direct sunlight, shorter days Moon phases – Names, identifying from image and location of earth, sun and moon. This study source was downloaded by 100000896431119 from CourseHero.com on 02-19-2025 21:18:58 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/146488173/ASTR-1010-Study-Guide-1pdf/ Tides – high tide and low tide location of moon spring tide and neap tide, location of moon and sun: - Moon is high in the sky=high tide, moon is low in the sky(horizon)=low tide, - Spring tides have higher high tides and lower low tides whereas neap tides have lower high tides and higher low tides, the range (difference in water level between high and low tide) is much larger in a spring tide than in a low tide Eclipses – - Solar eclipse-the moon is blocking the light to the earth, the shadow of the moon is covering the earth, new moon - Lunar eclipse-the sun's light is being blocked by the earth, the sun is in the earth's shadow, full moon - Summer solstice=longest day of the year - Winter solstice=shortest day of the year This study source was downloaded by 100000896431119 from CourseHero.com on 02-19-2025 21:18:58 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/146488173/ASTR-1010-Study-Guide-1pdf/ Celestial Navigation Celestial sphere- how we map the stars, zenith-directly above you, nadir-directly below you, horizon-straight out in front of you, 90 degrees, meridian-your latitude, left and right Pole stars relationship to latitude- north star doesn't move at all, while other stars move around in the sky Circumpolar stars- ever set below the horizon, you would need to stand on the North or South pole to see them all, you would stand at the equator to see no stars Evolution of Solar System Model Retrograde motion in each model Geocentric model- when the Earth is at the center of the universe, the sun, moon, and stars all orbit around the Earth, epicycles are present and explain retrograde motion Heliocentric model- when the Sun is at the center of the universe, the Earth, moon, and stars all orbit around the Sun, retrograde motion is shown here which describes the planets backwards motion, epicycles are present but retrograde motion doesn’t require an epicycle Epicycles- perfectly circular orbits Kepler's laws and introduction of elliptical orbits (eccentricity): - His intro to elliptical orbits removed the need for epicycles in the model of the solar system -1st law: elliptical orbits with the Sun at the center -2nd law: law of equal areas in equal time, faster when closer to the sun, applies to 1 planet at a time, states that a planet moves in its ellipse so that the line between it and the Sun placed at a focus sweeps out equal areas in equal times, aka planets move fastest when closest to the Sun -3rd law: the squares of the orbital periods of the planets are directly proportional to the cubes of the semi major axes of their orbits, it implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit Newton's Laws - In Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the force is proportional to both masses -1st law: an object will not change its motion unless a force acts on it -2nd law: the force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration -3rd law: when two objects interact, they apply forces to each other of equal magnitude and opposite direction F=ma: https://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/physics/force.php - Newton’s 2nd law, force is = to mass times acceleration This study source was downloaded by 100000896431119 from CourseHero.com on 02-19-2025 21:18:58 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/146488173/ASTR-1010-Study-Guide-1pdf/ Scenarios that experience acceleration: - F= Gm1 * m2 / r2 increasing speed acceleration, decreasing speed acceleration, if turning a corner you're still experiencing acceleration Mass and weight – how do they change based on location? - mass never changes, weight depends on where you are, it is the force determined by your mass times acceleration (F=ma) - On Mars your weight would be lower because the lower mass and smaller radius of Mars combine to a lower surface gravity Comparing gravitational force between a planet and star: - The more massive a planet or star is, the stronger the gravitational force it exerts, it is this force that allows a planet or star to hold other objects in their orbit Comparing gravitational force between the earth and sun: - they pull on eachother with an equal force Action reaction pairs (Newton's 3rd law): - For every force there is an equal and opposite force Orbits What is weightlessness? freefall, changing your direction, not speed, you're experiencing gravitational pull Circular orbit- velocity required for a circular orbit Escape velocity- when you escape your orbit Bound orbits vs unbound orbits: - An object on a bound orbit follows the same path around the Sun over and over, while an object on an unbound orbit approaches the Sun just once and then never returns - To maintain a bound orbit an object must have a velocity equal to or greater than the velocity required for a circular orbit and less than escape velocity Light Order categories of electromagnetic waves by increasing energy, frequency, wavelength: - In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays Categories: gamma, xray, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwave, radio c=λxf- electromagnetic waves Energy relationship to frequency, energy relationship to wavelength: - The amount of energy is directly proportional to the photon's electromagnetic frequency and thus, equivalently, is inversely proportional to the wavelength. The This study source was downloaded by 100000896431119 from CourseHero.com on 02-19-2025 21:18:58 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/146488173/ASTR-1010-Study-Guide-1pdf/ higher the photon's frequency, the higher its energy. Equivalently, the longer the photon's wavelength, the lower its energy. E=hf- light https://cleanroom.byu.edu/frequency-to-wavelength-to-energy-calculator https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/photon-energy Energy levels of atoms and the light they emit (diagram of energy level change and photon emitted): - The atom absorbs or emits light in discrete packets called photons, and each photon has a definite energy Absorption spectrum- the electron goes from low energy to high energy, a photon is coming in, see the rainbow with dark lines on it Emission spectrum- high energy to low energy, emits a photon, see dark band with bright lines on it The Doppler effect – red shift – blue shift: - is the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source - When an object moves away from us, the light is shifted to the red end of the spectrum, as its wavelengths get longer. If an object moves closer, the light moves to the blue end of the spectrum, as its wavelengths get shorter. Tools of an Astronomer Two main types of telescopes: reflection (reflect light on a mirror, mostly used today) and refraction (uses a lens that bends light as it passes through) CCD’s – quantum efficiency- how many photons it takes to get signal Photographic plates – integration time- how long we collect before we analyze Problems and their solutions when detecting electromagnetic waves from space: - Larger telescopes solve the diffraction limit problem - Adaptive optics solve the atmospheric seeing problem - The higher energy waves cant get to earth so the solution is to put telescopes in space