Theories of Development Notes

Theories of Development

Importance of Understanding Developmental Theories

• Developmental theories are crucial for understanding the changes in physiology, psychology, and behavior that occur normally at different stages in the lifespan.

• Behaviors are influenced by a variety of factors including culture, environment, past experiences, family, health status, and the individual's reactions.

• Understanding these influences helps predict and recognize behaviors.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

• Conflict arises when societal messages are mixed, causing the unconscious (id) to produce anxiety. This anxiety surfaces to the conscious (ego), influencing feelings and behavior.

• Key concepts include:

  • Oedipus complex

  • Electra anxiety

Defense Mechanisms for Coping

• Individuals utilize defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety and stress. Common defense mechanisms include:

  • Rationalization

  • Repression

  • Projection

  • Displacement

  • Reaction formation

  • Regression

  • Identification

  • Sublimation

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

• Freud proposed stages of psychosexual development:

  • Oral

  • Anal

  • Phallic

  • Latency

  • Genital

Psychodynamic Theory (Jung)

• Jung, initially a student of Freud, diverged by disagreeing that sexuality was the primary basis of behavior development.

• Jung introduced concepts like:

  • Introvert

  • Extrovert

Stages of the Life Cycle: A Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

• Erikson's theory emphasizes that personality development depends on social environment and interactions.

• Each stage presents a social crisis or task. Successful resolution of these tasks is necessary for progression to the next stage.

Erikson’s Stages of the Life Cycle

• Erikson's stages include:

  • Trust vs. mistrust

  • Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

  • Initiative vs. guilt

  • Industry vs. inferiority

  • Identity vs. role confusion

  • Intimacy vs. isolation

  • Generativity vs. self-absorption

  • Integrity vs. despair

Psychosocial Theory (Levinson)

• Levinson expanded on Erikson's theories.

• He emphasized the interactions among the environment, culture, and the individual as the "fabric of life."

• Levinson believed individuals follow an orderly sequence of events or structures in life.

Cognitive Theory (Piaget)

• Piaget's theory highlights cognitive milestones in development.

• Four stages related to learning and logical understanding:

  • Sensorimotor

  • Preoperational

  • Concrete operations

  • Formal operations

Cognitive Theory (Loevinger)

• Loevinger extended Piaget's model into adulthood.

• She posited that the ego adapts to demands and is crucial for critical thinking.

Constructive Theory (Kegan)

• Kegan's constructive developmental theory resembles Piaget's.

• It emphasizes lifelong interaction with the environment.

• The core needs are inclusion in reciprocal relationships and maintaining independence.

Theory of Language and Culture (Vygotsky)

• Vygotsky emphasized that social and cultural experiences are essential for optimal growth and development.

• Language is a significant factor in personality growth and development.

Vygotsky’s Language and Development Theory

• Stages include:

  • Infant

  • Toddler

  • Preschool

    • 3 years old

    • 4 years old

  • School age

Social and Economic Influences (Bronfenbrenner)

• Growth and development are influenced by a combination of social and economic factors.

• The theory addresses how children may be treated differently in various environments and the effects of these differences.

Bronfenbrenner’s Social Theory of Growth and Development

• Key influences:

  • Parents, siblings

  • Teachers, babysitters

  • School, neighborhood, community

  • Political community

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

• Maslow's hierarchy suggests that if basic needs are met, individuals can progress to higher levels of thought and self-fulfillment.

• From most to least basic, the needs are:

  • Physiological

  • Activity

  • Safety and Protection

  • Love and Belonging

  • Esteem

  • Self-Actualization

Environmental Theory (Rogers)

• Rogers believed people naturally form their own positive destiny, based on the self-concept, if obstacles are removed.

• Mastery over the environment and positive relationships shape the self-concept.

• Self-actualization occurs as individuals realize their potential.

Behaviorist Theory (Watson)

• Watson is considered the father of behaviorism.

• This theory posits that the environment and experiences mold personality.

Behaviorist Theory of Personality (Pavlov and Skinner)

• Personality and behavior are learned.

• Key concepts:

  • Classical conditioning

  • Operant conditioning

Social-Learning Theories of Personality (Bandura and Mischel)

• Social learning forms the basis for personality development.

• This involves exposure to and imitation of behavior.

Theory of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Focuses on moral reasoning.

• Involves developing a set of social rules to differentiate right from wrong.

• Moral behavior is based on the perception and integration of these rules.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

• Stages include:

  • Preconventional

  • Conventional

  • Postconventional

Development of Self-Image (Cooley and Mead)

• The "looking-glass self" concept is central.

• Self-image is formed through:

  • Imagining how we portray ourselves to others

  • Imagining how others evaluate us

  • Combining these impressions to formulate a self-concept.

Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult (Peck)

• Tasks include:

  • Coping with retirement from work

  • Adapting to physiological decline due to aging

  • Facing the inevitability of death

Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult (Havighurst)

• Tasks of late adulthood involve accepting oneself and maintaining meaning in life.

• Specific tasks include:

  • Adjusting to decreasing health status

  • Adjusting to decreased income

  • Adjusting to the death of a spouse

  • Adapting to changing social roles with peer groups

  • Adapting to changing living arrangements

Developmental Stages of Retirement (Atchley)

• Five stages related to retirement:

  • Preretirement

  • Honeymoon

  • Disenchantment

  • Stability

  • Terminal

Additional Influences on Growth and Development

• Various factors impact growth and development:

  • Cultural beliefs and practices

  • Gender differences

  • Poverty

  • Developmental tasks

Importance of Understanding Developmental Theories

• Developmental theories are crucial for understanding the changes in physiology, psychology, and behavior that occur normally at different stages in the lifespan.

  • These theories provide a framework for examining growth, change, and stability throughout the human life cycle.

  • They offer insights into physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral development.

• Behaviors are influenced by a variety of factors including culture, environment, past experiences, family, health status, and the individual's reactions.

  • Cultural influences shape norms and expectations, affecting behavior patterns.

  • Environmental factors such as socioeconomic status, education, and access to resources play a significant role.

  • Past experiences, including traumas and achievements, can have lasting impacts on current behaviors.

  • Family dynamics, parenting styles, and sibling relationships influence socialization and personality development.

  • Health status, including physical and mental well-being, affects an individual’s ability to engage in various activities.

  • Individual reactions to stimuli and events are influenced by temperament, emotional regulation, and coping mechanisms.

• Understanding these influences helps predict and recognize behaviors.

  • Predictions can be useful in preventing negative outcomes or promoting positive development.

  • Recognizing patterns of behavior aids in identifying developmental stages or potential issues.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

• Conflict arises when societal messages are mixed, causing the unconscious (id) to produce anxiety. This anxiety surfaces to the conscious (ego), influencing feelings and behavior.

  • The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

  • The ego operates on the reality principle, mediating between the id and the external world.

  • The superego incorporates societal and parental standards, providing a sense of morality.

• Key concepts include:

  • Oedipus complex

  • Occurs during the phallic stage where a child feels attraction towards the opposite-sex parent and rivalry towards the same-sex parent.

  • Electra anxiety

  • The female counterpart to the Oedipus complex, involving feelings of attraction towards the father and competition with the mother.

Defense Mechanisms for Coping

• Individuals utilize defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety and stress. Common defense mechanisms include:

  • Rationalization

  • Justifying unacceptable behaviors or feelings with logical explanations.

  • Repression

  • Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts or feelings from awareness.

  • Projection

  • Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person.

  • Displacement

  • Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a less threatening one.

  • Reaction formation

  • Behaving in a way that is the opposite of one’s true feelings.

  • Regression

  • Reverting to childlike behaviors when stressed.

  • Identification

  • Adopting the characteristics of someone else to cope with feelings of inadequacy.

  • Sublimation

  • Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

• Freud proposed stages of psychosexual development:

  • Oral

  • Focus on oral activities like sucking and biting; issues may lead to dependency or aggression.

  • Anal

  • Focus on bowel control; issues may lead to obsessiveness or messiness.

  • Phallic

  • Focus on genitals; development of the Oedipus or Electra complex.

  • Latency

  • Sexual urges are dormant; focus on social and intellectual pursuits.

  • Genital

  • Mature sexual interests and relationships develop.

Psychodynamic Theory (Jung)

• Jung, initially a student of Freud, diverged by disagreeing that sexuality was the primary basis of behavior development.

  • Jung emphasized the importance of the collective unconscious, which contains universal archetypes.

• Jung introduced concepts like:

  • Introvert

  • Individuals who are primarily oriented toward their internal thoughts and feelings.

  • Extrovert

  • Individuals who are primarily oriented toward the external world and social interactions.

Stages of the Life Cycle: A Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

• Erikson's theory emphasizes that personality development depends on social environment and interactions.

  • Each stage is characterized by a specific psychosocial crisis that shapes personality development.

• Each stage presents a social crisis or task. Successful resolution of these tasks is necessary for progression to the next stage.

  • Successfully navigating each stage leads to the development of specific virtues.

Erikson’s Stages of the Life Cycle

• Erikson's stages include:

  • Trust vs. mistrust

  • (Infancy) Developing a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection.

  • Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

  • (Early childhood) Developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

  • Initiative vs. guilt

  • (Preschool) Beginning to assert control and power over the environment; success leads to a sense of purpose.

  • Industry vs. inferiority

  • (School age) Coping with new social and academic demands; success leads to a sense of competence.

  • Identity vs. role confusion

  • (Adolescence) Developing a sense of self and personal identity; success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself.

  • Intimacy vs. isolation

  • (Young adulthood) Forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

  • Generativity vs. self-absorption

  • (Middle adulthood) Creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual; having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people.

  • Integrity vs. despair

  • (Late adulthood) Looking back on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment; wisdom.

Psychosocial Theory (Levinson)

• Levinson expanded on Erikson's theories.

  • He proposed that life evolves through a series of stable and transitional phases.

• He emphasized the interactions among the environment, culture, and the individual as the "fabric of life."

  • These interactions influence the individual’s life structure, including relationships, work, and personal values.

• Levinson believed individuals follow an orderly sequence of events or structures in life.

  • These structures are built and revised as individuals transition through different life stages.

Cognitive Theory (Piaget)

• Piaget's theory highlights cognitive milestones in development.

  • Focuses on how children construct knowledge and understanding of the world.

• Four stages related to learning and logical understanding:

  • Sensorimotor

  • (Birth to 2 years) Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

  • Preoperational

  • (2 to 7 years) Children develop symbolic thinking but lack logical reasoning.

  • Concrete operations

  • (7 to 11 years) Children begin to think logically about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts.

  • Formal operations

  • (12 years and up) Adolescents develop abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Cognitive Theory (Loevinger)

• Loevinger extended Piaget's model into adulthood.

  • She proposed stages of ego development that reflect increasing levels of self-awareness and moral reasoning.

• She posited that the ego adapts to demands and is crucial for critical thinking.

  • The ego integrates experiences and adapts to internal and external demands.

Constructive Theory (Kegan)

• Kegan's constructive developmental theory resembles Piaget's.

  • Focuses on how individuals construct their reality through ongoing interactions with the environment.

• It emphasizes lifelong interaction with the environment.

  • Development involves evolving ways of making meaning and organizing experiences.

• The core needs are inclusion in reciprocal relationships and maintaining independence.

  • Development involves balancing the need for connection with others and the need for autonomy.

Theory of Language and Culture (Vygotsky)

• Vygotsky emphasized that social and cultural experiences are essential for optimal growth and development.

  • Cognitive development is shaped by cultural tools, language, and social interactions.

• Language is a significant factor in personality growth and development.

  • Language mediates thought and enables learning from others.

Vygotsky’s Language and Development Theory

• Stages include:

  • Infant

  • Prelinguistic stage focuses on babbling and emotional expression.

  • Toddler

  • Begins to use single words and simple phrases.

  • Preschool

  • 3 years old

    • Uses more complex sentences and engages in conversations.

  • 4 years old

    • Begins to understand grammar and tells stories.

  • School age

  • Language becomes more sophisticated with reading and writing skills.

Social and Economic Influences (Bronfenbrenner)

• Growth and development are influenced by a combination of social and economic factors.

  • The social ecology model examines how different environmental systems impact development.

• The theory addresses how children may be treated differently in various environments and the effects of these differences.

  • Micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono systems all affect individual development.

Bronfenbrenner’s Social Theory of Growth and Development

• Key influences:

  • Parents, siblings

  • Immediate family members who provide primary care and socialization.

  • Teachers, babysitters

  • Individuals who interact with the child in educational or caregiving settings.

  • School, neighborhood, community

  • Broader social contexts that provide opportunities and resources.

  • Political community

  • Policies and regulations that impact families and children.

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

• Maslow's hierarchy suggests that if basic needs are met, individuals can progress to higher levels of thought and self-fulfillment.

  • The hierarchy is often displayed as a pyramid, with the most fundamental needs at the bottom.

• From most to least basic, the needs are:

  • Physiological

  • Basic needs such as food, water, and shelter.

  • Activity

  • The need to be active.

  • Safety and Protection

  • Security, stability, and freedom from fear.

  • Love and Belonging

  • Intimate relationships, friendships, and a sense of connection with others.

  • Esteem

  • Feelings of accomplishment, competence, and respect from others.

  • Self-Actualization

  • Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities.

Environmental Theory (Rogers)

• Rogers believed people naturally form their own positive destiny, based on the self-concept, if obstacles are removed.

  • He emphasized the importance of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness in fostering personal growth.

• Mastery over the environment and positive relationships shape the self-concept.

  • Self-concept is the individual’s perception of self, including beliefs, values, and attitudes.

• Self-actualization occurs as individuals realize their potential.

  • This involves a lifelong process of becoming one’s best self.

Behaviorist Theory (Watson)

• Watson is considered the father of behaviorism.

  • Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal thoughts or feelings.

• This theory posits that the environment and experiences mold personality.

  • Learning occurs through associations, reinforcement, and punishment.

Behaviorist Theory of Personality (Pavlov and Skinner)

• Personality and behavior are learned.

  • Classical and operant conditioning shape behavior patterns.

• Key concepts:

  • Classical conditioning

  • Learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned response.

  • Operant conditioning

  • Learning through consequences, where behaviors are strengthened by reinforcement and weakened by punishment.

Social-Learning Theories of Personality (Bandura and Mischel)

• Social learning forms the basis for personality development.

  • Individuals learn by observing others and modeling their behavior.

• This involves exposure to and imitation of behavior.

  • Observational learning, self-efficacy, and cognitive processes play key roles.

Theory of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Focuses on moral reasoning.

  • Moral development progresses through distinct stages of moral reasoning. Heinz Dilemma is often used to access the stages.

• Involves developing a set of social rules to differentiate right from wrong.

  • Moral reasoning is based on cognitive and emotional development.

• Moral behavior is based on the perception and integration of these rules.

  • Individuals make moral decisions based on their level of moral reasoning.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

• Stages include:

  • Preconventional

  • Morality is based on self-interest; avoiding punishment and seeking rewards.

  • Conventional

  • Morality is based on social rules and laws; maintaining social order.

  • Postconventional

  • Morality is based on universal ethical principles; justice, and human rights.

Development of Self-Image (Cooley and Mead)

• The "looking-glass self" concept is central.

  • Self-image is formed through social interactions and how others perceive us.

• Self-image is formed through:

  • Imagining how we portray ourselves to others

  • Considering how we present ourselves in social situations.

  • Imagining how others evaluate us

  • Interpreting other’s reactions to our behavior.

  • Combining these impressions to formulate a self-concept.

  • Integrating feedback from others to develop a sense of self.

Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult (Peck)

• Tasks include:

  • Coping with retirement from work

  • Adjusting to a new lifestyle and finding meaningful activities.

  • Adapting to physiological decline due to aging

  • Managing health issues and physical limitations.

  • Facing the inevitability of death

  • Coming to terms with mortality and preparing for end-of-life.

Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult (Havighurst)

• Tasks of late adulthood involve accepting oneself and maintaining meaning in life.

  • Focus on maintaining social connections and finding purpose in later years.

• Specific tasks include:

  • Adjusting to decreasing health status

  • Managing chronic conditions and adapting to physical changes.

  • Adjusting to decreased income

  • Managing finances and maintaining financial security.

  • Adjusting to the death of a spouse

  • Coping with grief and adapting to life as a widow or widower.

  • Adapting to changing social roles with peer groups

  • Maintaining friendships and social activities.

  • Adapting to changing living arrangements

  • Moving to assisted living or downsizing to a smaller home.

Developmental Stages of Retirement (Atchley)

• Five stages related to retirement:

  • Preretirement

  • Planning and preparing for retirement.

  • Honeymoon

  • Enjoying newfound freedom and leisure.

  • Disenchantment

  • Experiencing disappointment or boredom.

  • Stability

  • Establishing a new routine and sense of purpose.

  • Terminal

  • Facing health issues or end-of-life concerns.

Additional Influences on Growth and Development

• Various factors impact growth and development:

  • Cultural beliefs and practices

  • Cultural norms and traditions shape behavior and development.

  • Gender differences

  • Societal expectations and roles influence gender identity and behavior.

  • Poverty

  • Limited resources and opportunities affect health and well-being.

  • Developmental tasks

  • Age-related expectations and challenges that influence development.