Observational Learning

Observational Learning

Core Concept

• Classical and operant conditioning cannot fully explain human learning.

• Observational learning: Learning through observing others' actions and consequences.

  • Observed in both animals and humans.

  • Extensively studied by Albert Bandura.

  • Bandura challenged the idea that all learning comes from direct experience.

Definition

• Observational learning occurs when an organism's responses are influenced by observing others (models).

• Albert Bandura views observational learning as an extension of classical and operant conditioning.

  • Classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously through observation.

Basic Processes

• Learning by observing another's conditioning indirectly.

  • Example: Observing a friend's assertive behavior with a car salesperson being reinforced by a good deal.

    • The observer's tendency to act assertively may increase, even though they didn't directly experience the reinforcement.

Four Key Processes in Observational Learning

1. Attention

   • Paying attention to the behavior of another person and the consequences that follow.

2. Retention

   • Storing a mental representation of the observed behavior in memory for later use.

3. Reproduction

   • Converting stored mental images into overt behavior.

   • Depends on the ability to reproduce the response.

4. Motivation

   • The observer needs to be motivated to reproduce the observed response.

   • Motivation is affected by whether the observer believes the response will lead to a favorable outcome.

Observational Learning and Media Violence

Media Violence Controversy

• Concerns about the impact of media violence, especially on children, have been ongoing since the 1950s with the rise of television.

• Children's exposure to violence:

  • Direct exposure in the home.

  • Secondary exposure through media reports (rape, hijackings, murders, police brutality, xenophobia).

  • Exposure through discussions, newspapers, radio, and television.

  • Violent video games that promote murder and weapon use.

• Children spend significant time with media:

  • Approximately 40 hours per week with entertainment media.

  • More than half of that time is spent watching television, videos, and DVDs.

Bandura's Research

• Landmark research in the 1960s on the impact of media violence on children.

  • Study by Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963): Demonstrated that observing filmed models can influence aggressive behavior in children.

    • Children were shown a film of an aggressive model and observed for subsequent aggressive behavior.

    • The study involved nursery school children and inflatable "Bobo dolls" as targets for aggression.

    • Children who saw the aggressive model rewarded engaged in more aggression.

    • This study demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between exposure to TV depictions of aggression and increased aggressive behavior.

Contemporary Research

• Decades of research indicate that media violence fosters increased aggression.

• Short-term effects:

  • Exposure to violent content increases the likelihood of physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggressive thoughts, and aggressive emotions in children and adults.

• Desensitization:

  • Exposure to media violence can desensitize people to real-world aggression.

  • People show less reaction to real violence after exposure to media violence.

  • Playing violent video games can change perceptions of aggression in everyday life.

Real-World and Long-Term Effects

• Correlational research shows that the more violence children watch on TV, the more aggressive they tend to be at home and school.

• Cross-cultural studies have found a similar association between media violence and elevated aggression in multiple nations.

• Critics argue that the correlation could reflect other causal relationships:

  • Aggressive children may be drawn to violent shows.

  • A third variable, like a genetic predisposition, may lead to both a preference for violent shows and high aggressiveness.

• However, research has controlled for initial levels of aggressiveness and still found that regularly watching media violence promotes increased aggression.

• SABC example: South Africa's public broadcaster stopped showing public service delivery protests to prevent encouraging similar actions, aligning with Bandura's view that modeling violence on TV could promote similar violence.

Effects of Media Violence

• Critics argue that the effects of media violence on aggression are relatively weak.

• Aggression is influenced by multiple factors:

  • Genetic predispositions.

  • Parental modeling.

  • Peer influences.

  • Exposure to media violence is just one factor.

• A cross-cultural study by Anderson et al. (2017) showed that media violence was the second most influential factor in promoting aggressive behavior, exceeded only by associating with delinquent peers.

Broader Influences of Media

• Media can influence other behaviors beyond aggression.

• A study on risk-glorifying video games showed an association with increased smoking, drinking, and sexual activity in adolescents.

Correlation Between Media Violence and Aggression

• The correlation between exposure to media violence and aggression can have various underlying causal relationships.

• High exposure to media violence, genetic predisposition to aggressiveness, and high aggressiveness can all be correlated.