LEVEL 5 LEADERSHIP

Level 5 Leadership is a concept introduced by business consultant and author Jim Collins in his book "Good to Great." It refers to a leadership style characterized by a unique combination of personal humility and professional will. Level 5 leaders are considered to be the highest level of leadership effectiveness (Daft, 2016, pp. 515).

Instead of building an organization around "a genius with a thousand helpers," Level 5 leaders aim for the development of each individual to their maximum potential (Daft, 2016, pp. 515).

TWO IMPORTANT COMPONENTS

Humility: Level 5 leaders are modest and humble. They don't seek personal glory or credit for success but rather attribute achievements to the team. They are more focused on the success of the organization than on their individual accomplishments (Daft, 2016, pp. 514).

Will: Despite their personal humility, Level 5 leaders are driven by an unwavering determination to achieve long-term organizational success. They are highly ambitious for the company, not for themselves (Daft, 2016, pp. 514).

EXAMPLE

Qi Lu, who is from a rural village in China without electricity or running water, has risen to become the executive vice president of Microsoft's Applications and Services Group. His position at Microsoft wasn't fueled by aggression or a relentless pursuit of personal advancement but rather by his dedication to surpassing expectations in achieving organizational objectives (Daft, 2016, pp. 514).

ADVANTAGES

1.     Long-Term Success: Level 5 leaders are known for their commitment to the long-term success of the organization. Their focus on building a sustainable and enduring legacy often leads to the creation of companies that outperform competitors over time.

2.     Adaptability: Level 5 leaders are often adaptable and willing to make tough decisions for the benefit of the organization. Their humility allows them to learn from mistakes and adjust their strategies as needed.

DISADVANTAGES

1.     Exploitation Tendency: In competitive environments, the humility and focus on the success of others may be taken advantage of by individuals with more self-serving motives.

2.     Fear of Taking Risks: The emphasis on long-term success and commitment to organizational values may make Level 5 leaders cautious about taking risks. This caution could potentially hinder innovation and bold strategic moves.

SERVANT LEADERSHIP

"A servant leader transcends self-interest to serve others, the organization, and society." (Daft, 2016 pp.515) This implies that servant leaders prioritize the development and well-being of the employees or members of their organization as well as the organization as a whole. Servant leaders understand that their role is not about personal gain, but about enabling others to succeed and grow. They emphasize their team members' needs and try to assist their growth and development. This approach of leadership entails giving up power, ideas, information, recognition, credit for accomplishments, and even money to help others succeed. It is a selfless and empowering leadership style that emphasizes helping and assisting people for the overall welfare of the organization and society.

The idea of servant leadership places a strong emphasis on the value of leading with humility, empathy, and consideration for the needs of others. It entails empowering the members of the organization to take part in decision-making procedures and decentralizing the organizational structure. With this approach, leaders may leverage the knowledge and expertise of their members. Servant leaders establish a productive and empowering work environment by putting their members' well-being and development first. This promotes growth and success for both individuals and the organization as a whole. This leadership style is particularly effective in non-profit organizations, where the focus is on serving others and making a positive impact on society. (Greenleaf, 1977)

EXAMPLE

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is considered as a servant leader because of his commitment to helping the disadvantaged and oppressed. In his approach to leadership, he demonstrated humility and empathy, constantly placing the needs of others before his own. Dr. King's commitment to nonviolent activism and willingness to bear personal hardships for the betterment of his community embodies servant leadership principles. According to Greenleaf (1977), a servant leader values the well-being and growth of others and is motivated by a strong sense of duty to the community. Dr. King's selfless dedication to economic justice and civil rights exemplifies these characteristics, making him a prime example of a servant leader.

Furthermore, Dr. King's leadership was also distinguished by a strong sense of moral responsibility and a strong commitment to social justice. He set a good example for people to follow in his fight for equality and standing up for injustice. Dr. King's willingness to make personal sacrifices and his unrelenting commitment to uplifting others is consistent with the key qualities of servant leadership, as defined by Spears (1998). His legacy inspires leaders across the world to prioritize the needs of their communities and work toward a more just and equitable society. The life and deeds of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. are a compelling witness to the significance of servant leadership in accomplishing genuine change.

ADVANTAGES

1.      Encourages empowerment: Servant leaders promote their team members' development and growth, encouraging them to take initiative and make decisions independently. Because they feel trusted and valued by their leader, team members experience a feeling of ownership and accountability. In turn, this leads to increased motivation, higher work satisfaction, and enhanced organizational performance.

2.      Builds trust, respect and loyalty: Servant leaders place a high value on developing genuine relationships with their team members based on trust, respect, and mutual understanding. Servant leaders acquire their team's loyalty and commitment by demonstrating genuine concern for their members' well-being. This trust and respect not only fosters a positive work environment but also instills in employees a strong feeling of loyalty and dedication to their leader and the organization.

3.      Promotes collaboration: Servant leaders strive to foster a culture of teamwork and collaboration inside their organizations, where all members are encouraged to work together to achieve common goals. Servant leaders build team unity and cohesiveness by demonstrating collaborative behavior and building an environment in which all views are heard and respected. This collaborative approach leads to greater communication, higher levels of creativity, and better problem-solving abilities inside the organization.

4.      Fosters a positive work culture:Servant leaders foster a pleasant and encouraging work environment by putting their team members' happiness and well-being first. Serving as a model of empathy, compassion, and understanding, servant leaders foster an environment where people feel valued, valued, and motivated to perform at the highest level. Improved overall organizational performance is a result of this favorable work environment, which also raises employees' morale and job satisfaction.

DISADVANTAGES

1.     Risk of being taken advantage of: Leaders who practice servant leadership run the danger of being exploited by members who take advantage of their eagerness to help and prioritize the needs of others. This may result in a lack of authority and respect inside the team as well as possible animosity from other team members who think the servant leader is not effectively managing the group well enough.

2.     Lack of assertiveness: Servant leaders may find it difficult to set boundaries and be assertive, which can make it hard to make tough decisions or hold team members accountable. This might result in disagreements and inefficiencies brought on by a failure to step up when necessary, as well as a lack of direction and focus inside the organization.

3.     Not conducive to rapid decision making: Servant leaders may prioritize consensus-building and seeking input from others, which can stymie decision-making processes, particularly in fast-paced and dynamic situations. This might impair the organization's capacity to respond rapidly to changing conditions and capitalize on opportunities, potentially resulting in suboptimal outcomes.

4.     Potential for imbalance: Servant leaders may experience burnout, stress, and a lack of self-care if they are unable to properly balance their personal needs and well-being with those of their team. This can have a detrimental influence on both the leader's personal and organizational levels, as well as the leader's capacity to serve others successfully.

AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP

Authentic leaders are individuals who have a deep understanding of themselves and those who inspire others through their openness and authenticity. This is the type of leaders that remain true to one's values and act based on one's true self, rather than imitating others. Authentic leaders can build trust and commitment by letting employees be the real them, thus respecting diverse perspectives (Daft, 2016, pp. 516).

Five important components according to Daft:

Authentic leaders pursue their purpose with passion. Without a clear purpose, leaders may succumb to greed and ego-driven desires. When leaders exhibit fervor and dedication toward a purpose, they inspire followers to commit.

Authentic leaders practice with solid values. Shaped by personal beliefs, these values remain steadfast even in challenging times. This consistency allows people to understand the leader's principles, fostering trust.

Authentic leaders lead with hearts as well as their minds. While facing tough decisions, authentic leaders maintain compassion for others alongside the courage required for difficult choices.

Authentic leaders establish connected relationships. Authentic leaders cultivate enduring, positive relationships that motivate followers to excel. Moreover, they surround themselves with capable individuals and actively support their growth.

Authentic leaders demonstrate self-discipline. Through strong self-control, authentic leaders avoid taking undue risks that could harm others or the organization. When mistakes occur, they openly acknowledge and learn from them.

EXAMPLE

Vernon Clark, who served as U.S. Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) from 2000 to 2005, exemplifies many traits of authentic leadership (Daft, 2016, pp. 516). In 2000, faced with a challenge of high sailor attrition due to a lack of pre-enlistment interest, Clark took a stand against budget cuts in sailor training. Instead, he advocated for increased salaries, prioritized breaking down barriers between enlisted sailors and officers, and overhauled the job assignment process to ensure individuals weren't compelled into undesired roles or locations. This approach fostered an environment where questioning assumptions, asking for clarification, and expressing dissenting opinions were not only accepted but encouraged.

Authentic leaders, like Vernon Clark, place significant importance on personal relationships, actively supporting their followers, demonstrating courage, and standing up for their convictions. Such leaders are more inclined to make decisions that may not always be popular but are rooted in their genuine belief in what is right.

ADVANTAGES

1.     Healthy Work Environment: Authentic leaders contribute to a positive organizational culture by fostering openness, transparency, and honesty. This can lead to a healthier work environment.

2.     Trust and Credibility: Authentic leaders are often perceived as trustworthy and credible because they are genuine and true to themselves. This authenticity builds trust among followers.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Vulnerability: Authentic leaders may need to navigate the balance between openness and vulnerability without appearing weak. Some may interpret openness as a lack of authority.

INTERACTIVE LEADERSHIP

This means that the leader favors a consensual and collaborative process, and influence derives from relationships rather than position power and formal authority (Daft, 2016, p. 517). A style of leadership distinguished by the following values: compassion, collaboration, inclusion, and relationship development.

A leader is said to be engaging in interactive leadership when they take it upon themselves to involve others as much as possible. This is accomplished by delegating tasks and not taking on all of the responsibilities of a leader by themselves. It is via the formation of groups, the formation of collaborations, and the extension of ties that individuals are able to feel as though they are a part of the way their organization is run.

The findings of a study conducted by Eagly and Carli (2003) reveal that women's leadership styles are typically distinct from those of the majority of males and are particularly well-suited to the present-day organizations. When Zenger Folkman (2011), a company that specializes in leadership development, conducted a study with more than 7,200 entrepreneurs about the leaders in their firms, the results showed that women were ranked as stronger overall leaders. One study indicated that when female managers were judged by their peers, subordinates, and employers, they scored much higher than men on abilities such as listening, fostering communication, and motivating others.

Even though women are more likely to be identified with the style of leadership known as interactive leadership, it is possible for both men and women to be good interactive leaders (Daft, 2016, p.519).

EXAMPLE

Cindy Szadokierski is a great example of an interactive leader. She began her career with United Airlines as a bookings agent and is now the vice president in charge of operations for the largest hub of United Airlines, which is located at O'Hare International Airport.The approach to leadership that Szadokierski takes is more focused on collaboration than it is on command and control.

Men are also capable of being interactive leaders, as demonstrated by Pat McGovern, the founder and chairman of IDG, a technology publishing and research company that owns magazines such as CIO, PC World, and Computerworld. McGovern is an example of how men may be interactive leaders. McGovern is of the opinion that it is the primary obligation of leaders to maintain personal contact with their personnel and to convey to them that they are valued.

ADVANTAGES

1.     Participation: It is the sort of leadership that encourages employees to participate in group decision-making, to maintain interpersonal relationships, and to involve themselves in teamwork. Interacting with people from different backgrounds, promoting brainstorming sessions, and working together are all activities that are essential to the success of an interactive leader. Workers are encouraged to freely voice their problems and ideas, and this style of leader places a high priority on the importance of teamwork.

2.     Creativity and Innovation: Members of the team are given the opportunity to offer their individual perspectives, skills, and knowledge when they are led in an interactive manner. Because of this, there is a wider variety of ideas and solutions, which can be a driving force for innovation and the resolution of problems.

DISADVANTAGES

1.     Time-consuming: The process of interactive leadership requires a significant amount of time and decision-making that involves a huge number of individuals and organizations. Whenever everyone is given the opportunity to share their thoughts, there is a great deal of information to process. Therefore, one of the major drawbacks of interactive leadership is that it may become more time-consuming to arrive at decisions. This is due to the fact that every single member of the team must be involved in the process of making decisions, and that agreement must be attained through the process of reaching a consensus. During the time when everyone is attempting to reach a consensus, this may result in the postponement of significant decisions in some circumstances.

2.     Conflicts: There is a possibility that disagreements in viewpoints will result in longer-lasting debates. When a large number of people are involved, this is a very dangerous situation. The use of interactive leadership can occasionally result in confusion over who is in charge, which can have a negative impact on productivity. Consequently, this style of leadership can also be more difficult to manage when it comes to interactions with other people. This is due to the fact that the decision-making process requires participation from every member of the team, which can result in conflicts and competition among the members of the team.

TRAIT THEORY OF LEADERSHIP (GREAT MAN)

Back in the day, people believed in the "Great Man" approach to leadership, thinking there was some special trait that made leaders amazing. But now, we're taking a closer look at traits, like personal qualities, to see how they really work in leadership situations.

Traits, both good and not-so-good, are important in leadership. Take optimism, for example—it's great for leaders because it helps them dream big and inspire hope. But if leaders are too optimistic without checking in with reality, it can lead to problems, like in the 2007-2008 financial crisis (Daft, 2016). The key is to use traits in the right way for each situation.

Good leaders don't just focus on traits; they also figure out what they're naturally good at and work on those strengths. These strengths are a mix of what they're born with and what they've learned. Leaders use these strengths like tools to get things done and feel good about it. So, it's not about having specific traits; it's about using what you're good at to handle challenges.

ADVANTAGES

1. The good thing about focusing on strengths is that leaders can be more satisfied and successful. Unlike the old way of thinking that one specific trait makes a great leader, this new way considers that leadership is always changing. Being flexible and using personal strengths become really important.

DISADVANTAGES

2. But the old "Great Man" way has some problems. It was too simple, thinking that one trait could make someone a successful leader. Recent studies show that it's not that easy. For example, being too optimistic, which seems good, can actually cause issues if not balanced with checking in with reality.

In the world of leadership ideas, we've moved from just looking at traits to understanding strengths. Recognizing and using personal strengths, instead of trying to fit a mold, seems to be a better way to be a good leader. Leadership is not about finding a perfect leader but about d at.

MODULE 7 - LEADING

SUB-TOPIC: LEADERSHIP THEORIES

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

     ●   INTRODUCTION

-        Prof. Fred Fiedler's contingency theory proposes that effective group performance depends on matching the leader's style with the situation. It suggests that a leader's basic leadership style can be either task-oriented or relationship-oriented (Robbins, 2020, pp. 484-485).

-        Fiedler developed the least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire to measure a leader's style, which contains pairs of contrasting adjectives, and respondents rate their least-preferred coworker on a scale of 1 to 8 for each pair (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

-        If the leader describes the least-preferred coworker in positive terms (high LPC score), the style is relationship-oriented. If the leader describes the coworker in negative terms (low LPC score), the style is task-oriented (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

-        Fiedler's model identifies three contingency dimensions: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. The model categorizes situations into eight (8) possible combinations of these dimensions, ranging from highly favorable to highly unfavorable for the leader (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

➔   Leader-Member Relations: This dimension refers to the degree of confidence, trust, and respect that employees have for their leader. It is rated as either good or poor (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

➔   Task Structure: This dimension describes the degree to which job assignments are formalized and structured. It is rated as either high or low (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

➔   Position Power: This dimension represents the degree of influence a leader has over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases. It is rated as either strong or weak (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

HOW TO USE FIEDLER’S THEORY OF LEADERSHIP TO BUILD A MORE SUCCESSFUL

TEAM? (How to Build a More Successful Team with Fielder’s Contingency Theory of Leadership, 2021)

1. Identify your leadership style: Determine your LPC score by rating yourself based on how you've interacted with people you currently work with or have worked with in the past. This evaluation is useful even if you have never been in a leadership position before.

Figure 1. Prof. Fred Fiedler’s Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale (Team Asana, 2022)

–              If you get 73 or more, you're a relationship-oriented leader. You are a task-oriented leader if you get a score of 54 or less.

–              You're a mix of the two types of leadership if your number is between 55 and 72. You are in charge of figuring out which style fits you best so that you can choose the most suitable working environment.

2. Analyze your situation: It's important to assess how favorable your work environment is. To evaluate situational favorableness, consider these questions and rate each from 1 to 10:

❖   Is trust in your team high or low (leader-member relation score)?

❖   Are tasks vague or clear-cut and well-understood (task structure score)? ❖ Is your authority low or high (leader’s position power score)?

3. Determine if it’s the right style for the situation: Assess your current position and determine whether your leadership style is appropriate for the situation at hand.

❖   In a circumstance when situational favorableness is either very high or very low, are you a task-oriented leader?

❖   As a relationship-oriented leader, does your favorableness rating fall within the moderate range?

❖   A department transfer may be an option if you determine that your current position does not correspond with your leadership style. On the other hand, you might want to change things or improve the way you lead.

4. Find the Right Leader: According to Impact International (2020), 79% of business leaders agreed or strongly agreed that there is a need to spend more on

people-related change, culture, skills, and behaviors. (p. 14)

❖   If you're in middle management, you could hire supervisors to help out where your leadership style falls short.

❖   Whether you are recruiting externally or from within your team, have candidates complete the LPC assessment to determine their suitability for the position.

5. Change the Situation: Find a way to change your leadership style if it doesn't work well with the situation.

❖   Will the jobs be easier to understand if you make the expectations more straightforward or the business processes better?

❖   Would accepting a more senior position or asking for additional responsibility help you become a more effective leader?

HOW THE LEADER STYLE FITS THE SITUATION

Figure 2. Fiedler’s Contingency Model (Daft, 2016, p. 527)

–                 Based on Fiedler's research, this table shows the best leadership styles for different specific factors. Task-oriented leaders are shown by the blue line in the table above, while the red line shows relationship-oriented leaders.

–                 Typically, the task-oriented leader exhibits the highest efficiency under situations that are either highly favorable or highly unfavorable. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in the middle area, where situational factors are mixed.

–                 Fiedler believed that leaders should be put in situations that are best for their style. An alternative approach suggests adapting your leadership style to suit the specific situations.

●      EFFECTIVENESS

-        Fiedler's contingency theory has shown considerable evidence to support its effectiveness in predicting leadership success.

-        The theory emphasizes the importance of matching the leader's style with the situation to achieve effective group performance.

●      DRAWBACKS

-        One major criticism of Fiedler's theory is that it assumes a leader's style is fixed and stable, regardless of the situation. In reality, effective leaders can adapt and change their style to fit different situations.

-        The LPC questionnaire used to measure a leader's style has been criticized for its lack of practicality.

●      EXAMPLES

❖   Scenario 1: NEWLY HIRED CO-MANAGER AT A STARTUP

-        Assume you were recently hired as a co-manager of a new tech business. Twelve people have worked together for a little more than a year. The current manager appointed you to assist in the improvement of the company's strategy.

❖   Leader-member relations are low. Being a new manager in a team that already works well together means that you'll face some opposition and mistrust at first.

❖   The task structure is low. Being a startup, the company still needs some structure, which is why you were hired. Currently, everyone pitches in wherever help is needed.

❖   Leader position power is weak. Another manager who possesses greater authority has the ability to object to your decisions, particularly those that are team-related.

-        According to Fiedler's Contingency Theory, this situation needs a task-oriented leader. It would be very difficult for a relationship-oriented leader to accomplish anything under these circumstances.

❖   Scenario 2: PROMOTED TO HEAD OF GRAPHIC DESIGN

-        Say you were recently given the title of Head of Graphic Design at your design firm. Because your team liked you so much, you were promoted after five years of working.

❖   Leader-member relations are good. Over the years, you have developed a strong rapport with your team; in fact, they desired for you to take on a more senior position.

❖   Task structure is decently high. Your team has some creative freedom over their product, but the firm has been around for a while, so tasks and procedures are relatively straightforward.

❖   Leader position power is weak. You have been moved to a higher position where you can help your team more with your knowledge, but you are not in charge and cannot hire or fire people.

-        According to Fiedler's Contingency Theory, this situation needs a

relationship-oriented leader. While things are mostly going well, you don't have the power to make big changes.

HERSEY AND BLANCHARD SITUATIONAL THEORY

●      INTRODUCTION

-        Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed this theory that gained a strong following among management development specialists. This model is called Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) (Robbins, 2020, p. 486).

-        SLT is a contingency theory that focuses on the followers’ readiness.

-        However, two points need to be clarified. Why a leadership theory focuses on the followers and what is meant by the term readiness (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

1. The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader. Regardless of what the leader does, its effectiveness will depend on the follower's actions (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

2. Meanwhile, Readiness refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

- SLT uses the same leadership method that Fiedler identified: these are task and relationship behavior. The only difference is that Hersey and Blanchard go further to consider task and relationship behavior as high or low.

LEADERSHIP STYLES (Robbins, 2020, pp. 485-486)

1. Telling (high task–low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks.

2. Selling (high task–high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior.

3. Participating (low task–high relationship): The leader and followers share in decision-making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating.

4. Delegating (low task–low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support.

GROUPS OF FOLLOWERS (Robbins, 2020, p. 486)

1. R1: People are both unable and unwilling to take responsibility for doing something. Followers aren’t competent or confident.

2. R2: People are unable but willing to do the necessary job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the appropriate skills.

3. R3: People are able but unwilling to do what the leader wants. Followers are competent but don’t want to do something.

4. R4: People are both able and willing to do what is asked of them.

THE SITUATIONAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLE AND FOLLOWER READINESS

Figure 3. Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Model of Leadership (Daft, 2016, p. 525)

According to Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Model, the S1 telling style is most likely to effectively influence followers who are unable and unwilling (R1 followers) who lack the necessary skills or confidence to assume responsibility for their task behavior due to inadequate abilities, experience, or insecurity. In this style, the leader provides specific instructions on what, how, and when tasks should be done.

The S2 selling and S3 participating styles are suitable for followers with moderate to high readiness. For instance, when followers lack some education and experience but possess confidence, interest, and a willingness to learn (R2 followers), the S2 selling style is effective. It involves giving direction while also seeking input and clarifying tasks, rather than solely instructing.

The S3 participating style is applicable when followers have the required skills and experience but are somewhat insecure or less willing (R3 followers). It allows the leader to guide development and serve as a resource for advice and assistance.

In situations where followers exhibit very high readiness (R4 followers), the S4 delegating style can be effectively employed. Due to the followers' high readiness, the leader can delegate decision-making and implementation responsibilities to subordinates with the necessary skills, abilities, and positive attitudes, providing a general goal and sufficient authority for task execution as followers deem appropriate (Daft, 2016, pp. 525-526).

     ●   EFFECTIVENESS

-   SLT has intuitive appeal. It acknowledges the importance of followers and builds on the logic that leaders can compensate for the ability and motivational limitations of their followers.

     ●   DRAWBACKS

- As for its effectiveness, research efforts to test and support the theory generally have been disappointing. Possible explanations include internal inconsistencies in the model as well as problems with research methodology (Robbins, 2020, p. 486).

     ●   EXAMPLES

- In applying the situational model, leaders assess the readiness level of their followers and choose an appropriate leadership style: telling, selling, participating, or delegating. As an example, Jo Newton, a leadership manager at Mars Incorporated, predominantly employs a participating style in her role at the Slough office near London. Newton's team mostly consists of individuals with moderate to high readiness levels. She informs them of the company's objectives and then steps back, offering guidance and support as needed. Newton prefers fostering individual approaches and supporting her team rather than directing them explicitly (Daft, 2016, p. 526).

CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

     ●   INTRODUCTION

-        Charismatic Leadership is a leadership style that stems out of the followership of a charismatic leader.

-        A charismatic leader is depicted as someone to whom followers attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors and tend to give power (Robbins, 2020, p. 489).

-        Charismatic leaders excel in visionary leadership, possessing the skill to articulate an appealing and credible future that is challenging to achieve. Vision plays a crucial role in charismatic leadership. Charismatic leaders engage employees emotionally, inviting them to be part of something larger than themselves. Despite obstacles, charismatic leaders perceive possibilities and instill hope. They typically harbor a strong and compelling vision for the future, motivating others to contribute to its realization. Their emotional impact on subordinates arises from a genuine belief in the vision and the ability to convey it in a way that makes it tangible, personal, and meaningful (Daft, 2016, p. 530).

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHARISMATIC LEADER (Robbins, 2020, p. 489)

1. They have a vision.

2. The ability to articulate that vision.

3. A willingness to take risks to achieve that vision

4. Sensitivity to both environmental constraints and follower needs;

5. And behaviors that are out of the ordinary.

●      EFFECTIVENESS

- The charismatic leader has the ability to inspire and motivate people to do more than they would normally do, despite obstacles and personal sacrifice. Followers are willing to put aside their own interests for the sake of the team, department, or organization. The charisma of the leader acts as a catalyst for an elevated level of dedication and performance from the team.

— EXAMPLE 1: Martin Luther King Jr. employed his charisma to advocate for social equality through nonviolent methods. In contrast, Steve Jobs, during the early 1980s, utilized charisma to inspire unwavering loyalty and commitment from Apple's technical staff. Jobs achieved this by articulating a compelling vision of personal computers that would significantly alter people's lifestyles. Both instances showcase how charismatic leaders can influence and motivate others toward meaningful goals.

●      DRAWBACKS

–                 Charismatic leaders, while captivating and influential, may not always prioritize the best interests of their organizations. Research indicates that individuals with narcissistic traits, often associated with charismatic leadership, can exhibit behaviors that may be detrimental. Some charismatic leaders, driven by personal goals, have been found to act in a corrupt manner, allowing their individual objectives to take precedence over the goals of the organizations they lead.

— EXAMPLE 2: Charismatic leaders in companies like Enron, Tyco, WorldCom, and HealthSouth engaged in unethical practices. These leaders misused organizational resources for personal gain and violated laws to artificially boost stock prices. Subsequently, they capitalized on their positions by cashing in millions of dollars through personal stock options. The mention of these companies often refers to corporate scandals and financial misconduct that occurred in the early 2000s, leading to legal consequences and regulatory reforms.

–                 Achieving high employee performance doesn't always necessitate charismatic leadership. It may be particularly relevant in situations where the task has an ideological purpose or when the environment is marked by high stress and uncertainty. This could clarify why charismatic leaders are more commonly found in politics, religion, wartime, or during the startup phase or survival crises of a business firm.

— EXAMPLE 3: Adolf Hitler is often described as a charismatic leader. He possessed strong oratory skills, a charismatic presence, and the ability to captivate and inspire large audiences. His speeches and rallies were known for their emotional impact, and he was able to build a significant following. However, it's important to note that charisma itself is a neutral trait and can be used for positive or negative purposes. In Hitler's case, his leadership was associated with immense harm, as he led the Nazi Party in perpetrating atrocities during World War II, including the Holocaust.

A. Path-goal theory

Concept: Robert House's theory emphasizes leaders aiding followers in navigating obstacles toward achieving work goals (Robbins & Coutler, 2021, p. 487). A leader's main job is to help followers reach their goals by providing a clear and achievable path. The leader accomplishes this by offering guidance, removing obstacles, and providing appropriate rewards. The theory emphasizes that effective leadership depends on adapting leadership styles to the characteristics of followers and the demands of the situation, aiming to enhance follower motivation and satisfaction.

Path-goal Model

According to Robbins and Coulter (p. 487, 2021), there are primary types of leader behaviors: achievement oriented leadership, directive leadership, participative leadership, and supportive leadership. A path-goal theory example is a leader who employs all four leadership styles on four different staff members based on their unique needs. A leader who possesses these four leadership behaviors would likely exhibit a situational leadership style, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard (Robbins & Coulter, p.486, 2021).

1.     Directive: Lets subordinates know what’s expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks.

2.     Supportive: Shows concern for the needs of followers and is friendly.

3.     Participative: Consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision.

4. Achievement-oriented: Sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level

Drawbacks:

1.               Complexity: The theory's multiple leadership styles based on follower and situational factors can be complex, making it difficult for leaders to consistently apply.

2.               Limited Attention to Team Dynamics: The theory primarily focuses on leader-follower relationships, potentially overlooking the dynamics within the team, which can also impact goal achievement.

3.               Limited Attention to Leader Characteristics: Path-Goal Theory places more emphasis on situational factors and follower characteristics, potentially overlooking the impact of the leader's traits on the leadership process.

Effectiveness.

1. Motivation: By clarifying paths to goals and offering rewards, leaders can motivate followers, increasing their commitment to achieving objectives.

2. Adaptability: The theory encourages leaders to adapt their style to fit the needs of followers and the demands of the situation, promoting flexibility and effectiveness.

3. Goal Clarity: Leaders using Path-Goal Theory can contribute to clearer communication about goals, reducing ambiguity and helping followers understand what is expected.

4. Problem Solving: The emphasis on removing obstacles can facilitate effective problem-solving within the team, fostering a more supportive and productive work environment.

5. Team Performance: By providing the necessary support and guidance, leaders can positively influence team performance and goal attainment.

B. Transformational Leadership

Concept: Comparable to charismatic leaders, transformational leaders are distinguished for their special ability to inspire innovation and change by understanding the needs and concerns of their followers, giving their work purpose, pushing others to think creatively about long-standing issues, and setting an example of the new behaviors and values. (Daft, 2016, p. 530). Transformational leaders motivate staff members in ways that go beyond incentives and trades. This approach, which expresses the significance and intent behind the organization's objectives, may increase a team's intrinsic motivation.

Drawbacks

1. Dependency on leader: Transformational leadership is primarily dependent on the presence and charisma of the leader. If the leader is missing or lacks the necessary qualities, followers may lack direction and motivation.

2. Potential for manipulation: The charm and persuasiveness of transformational leaders can occasionally be utilized for personal benefit or manipulation.

3. Resistance to change: While transformative leadership stimulates creativity, some followers may oppose change because of apprehension of the unknown or uncertainty about new ideas.

Effectiveness

1. Inspiration and motivation: Transformational leaders inspire and motivate their followers to go above and beyond their own self-interest. This can result in increased levels of commitment and performance.

2. Creativity and innovation: Transformational leaders inspire the creativity and inventive thinking of the followers, which can lead to new ideas and improved problem-solving.

3. Personal and professional development: Transformational leadership prioritizes the growth and development of individual followers while promoting a culture of continuous learning and progress.

C. Transactional Leadership

Concept: According to Daft (2016, p. 531) transactional leaders establish structure, give clear instructions and tasks to their subordinates, give suitable rewards, show consideration for their subordinates, and make an effort to address their social needs.

Transactional leadership focuses on results, conforms to the existing structure of an organization and measures success according to that organization’s system of rewards and penalties. They use reinforcement theory and extrinsic motivation in the form of a reward, incentive, and punishment system.

Drawbacks

1.     Limited motivation: Transactional leadership largely focuses on extrinsic motivation through rewards and punishments. This might lead to followers lacking an intrinsic motivation because they may only execute at the minimum level required to obtain the rewards.

2.     Lack of creativity and innovation: Transactional leaders are primarily concerned with maintaining the status quo and attaining predetermined goals. This has the potential to hinder creativity and discourage followers from taking risks or thinking outside the box.

3.     Short-term focus: Transactional leadership is more concerned with immediate outcomes and short-term objectives. It may not be effective in promoting long-term organizational growth or adjusting to changing conditions.

Effectiveness

1.     Clear expectations and accountability: Clear expectations and guidelines are provided by transactional leadership, which may help in upholding accountability and maintaining order.

2.     Efficient management: Transactional leaders are frequently effective at managing day-to-day operations and completing tasks on time.

3.     Structure and stability: Transactional leadership creates a structured and stable environment, which can be advantageous in organizations that demand a high level of control and precision.

D. Followership, Substitutes, and Neutralizers for Leadership

Concept: Followership recognizes the role of followers in the leadership process. Not only do leaders need to motivate followers, but followers also influence the attitudes and behaviors of leaders. Substitutes, on the other hand, make a leader’s influence not only impossible but also unnecessary. They act as a replacement for the leader’s influence. Neutralizers of leadership, on the other hand, are not helpful; they prevent leaders from acting as they wish (Bright, 2017).

Styles of Followership

Five follower styles, which are categorized according to two dimensions, as shown in the exhibit.

Drawbacks (Followership)

1.     Limited Decision-Making Power: Followers often have less influence over decisions and may not have their ideas implemented as frequently as leaders (Rizvi, 2023).

2.     Dependence on Leadership: Followers are typically dependent on their leaders for direction and approval, which can be frustrating if you disagree with your leader’s decisions (Rizvi, 2023).

3.     Less Recognition: Followers may not receive as much recognition for their contributions compared to leaders, even though their efforts are crucial to the team’s success (Rizvi, 2023).

4.     Lower Potential Rewards: Followers often have fewer opportunities for promotions, bonuses, or high-profile assignments compared to leaders (Rizvi, 2023b).

5.     Less Control Over Work: As a follower, you might have less control over your tasks and how you do your work, especially in more hierarchical organizations (Rizvi, 2023).

6. Limited Scope for Innovation: Followers may find it harder to implement innovative ideas or make substantial changes due to their position in the team’s hierarchy (Rizvi, 2023).

Effectiveness (Followership)

1.     Less Pressure and Responsibility: Followers generally experience less pressure compared to leaders as they are not typically held accountable for the overall success or failure of a project or organization (Rizvi, 2023).

2.     Focus on Individual Skills: Followership allows you to hone in on your specific skills and strengths, which can lead to a high degree of specialization and expertise (Rizvi, 2023).

3.     More Flexible Hours: Followers typically have more predictability in their schedules and may not be expected to work beyond their designated hours as frequently as leaders (Rizvi, 2023).

4.     Less Exposure to Conflict: As a follower, you’re less likely to be involved in high-stakes conflict resolution or decision-making processes, which can be emotionally taxing (Rizvi, 2023).

5.     Greater Team Camaraderie: Followers often have the opportunity to build closer relationships with peers without the complications of power dynamics (Rizvi, 2023b).

6.     Opportunity for Learning and Growth: Followership offers a great opportunity to learn from leaders and gain experience before taking on a leadership role (Rizvi, 2023).

Effectiveness of Substitute

1. Substitutes for leadership behavior can clarify role expectations, motivate organizational members, or satisfy members (making it unnecessary for the leader to attempt to do so). In some cases, these substitutes supplement the behavior of a leader (Bright, 2019).

Drawbacks (Substitute)

1.     Reduction of Leader Influence: Leadership substitutes, such as strong cultures, stringent protocols, or cohesive teams, can reduce a leader's direct influence or impact on their followers.

2.     Diminished Need for Leadership: When substitutes are available, the perceived requirement for formal leadership may be lessened, perhaps leading to complacency or neglect of developing effective leadership abilities.

3.     Limited Flexibility: Relying excessively on replacements may limit adaptability and creativity since the organization may become excessively dependent on established systems or structures, limiting its capacity to respond to new issues.

4.     Inhibition of Development: The overuse of substitutes could hinder the development of leadership skills inside the organization since people may rely on substitutes rather than actively participating in leadership roles.

5. Potential Disconnect: There could be a gap between the perceived effectiveness of substitutes and their actual ability to replace or replicate the positive impact of a capable leader, leading to disillusionment.

Effectiveness (Neutralizers)

1.               Conflict Management: They can resolve disagreements and offer fair outcomes that satisfy all parties involved by remaining neutral and unbiased (Bright, 2019).

2.               Impartial Decision-Making: Neutralizers are capable of making objective decisions based on available facts without being swayed by personal biases or preferences. This can result in fair and equal decisions, as well as increased trust among team members (Bright, 2019).

3.               Maintaining Balance: Neutralizers may help in the maintenance of a sense of equilibrium within a team or organization. They can prevent power disputes, favoritism, and other undesirable team dynamics and morale problems (Bright, 2019).

Drawbacks (Neutralizers)

1.               Perceived Indecisiveness: Some teammates may regard neutralizers as indecisive or lacking in strong leadership abilities. This view might decrease trust in the leader's capacity to provide clear guidance and make difficult decisions (Bright, 2019).

2.               Difficulty in Addressing Conflict: While neutralizers are excellent at handling disagreements, they may have difficulties when dealing with deeply rooted or emotionally charged issues. A more assertive leadership style or outside involvement may be required in such circumstances (Bright, 2019).

3.               Potential for Inaction: Neutralizers can put so much emphasis on maintaining harmony and avoiding conflict that they avoid taking required steps or making difficult decisions (Bright, 2019).

Module 7: Leading

Group Report Transcript

Behavioral Approach

According to the behavioral leadership theory, a leader's effectiveness is determined by their actions as opposed to their inherent qualities. Behavioral leadership theory entails the observation and assessment of a leader's behaviors and actions in response to a specific situation. According to this theory, leaders are created rather than born (Indeed, 2023). There are four main behavior leadership studies conducted that feature different leadership styles: University of Iowa Studies, Ohio State Studies, University of Michigan Studies, and Managerial Grid.

University of Iowa Studies

The University of Iowa conducted a study that examined three distinct leadership styles in order to determine their relative effectiveness. These three leadership styles are authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles. 

(1)             In authoritarian style, the leader exhibits a managerial style characterized by imposing work methods, the exercise of unilateral decision-making authority, and the restriction of employee engagement. 

(2)             The leader in democratic style actively engages in the decision-making process and seeks input from team members. The leader involved its workers in the decisionmaking process, granted them delegated responsibility, and utilized feedback as a means to provide coaching and development opportunities for the employees. 

(3)             Lastly, the leader employing a laissez-faire style granted the group the freedom to do their own work. An employee is granted the freedom to make judgments and execute the tasks in a manner that it deemed appropriate (Robbins, 2020, p. 483). 

The Iowa Studies of Leadership, administered by Lewin, Lippitt, and White, were conducted during the 1939s. This early study, which established three main leadership styles, was incredibly influential in its attempt to identify distinct leadership styles. The task performance of ten-year-old boys was analyzed in this study across three different groups (TechnoFunc, 2013).

The findings of the study showed interesting results:

•        Twenty-nine boys prefer the democratic style of leadership. The democratic leader fostered an environment that promoted group discussion and granted participation in the decision-making process. He delegated his leadership duties to his subordinates and engaged them in the strategic development and implementation of the endeavor. 

•        The only child who enjoyed the authoritarian style was the son of a military officer. The group's authoritarian leader was extremely directive. He forbade any form of participation. Demonstrating concern for the undertaking, he instructed the adherents on the proper course of action. 

•        Seven out of ten males favored the laissez-faire style of leadership. The laissez-faire leader of the third group abstained from all leadership responsibilities and granted the group absolute freedom. Regarding the mission at hand, he failed to establish any policies or procedures. These boys demonstrated a greater degree of aggressiveness, hostility, and indifference in comparison to their peers exposed to the former styles (TechnoFunc, 2013).

Among the three, laissez-faire leadership was the least effective. Furthermore, group members increased their demands, exhibited minimal cooperation, and hindered the group members' ability to operate autonomously. Delegative leaders provide minimal to no direction to members of the group and delegate the responsibility of decision-making to them. While this approach may prove efficacious when group members possess exceptional qualifications in a particular domain, it frequently results in ambiguously defined responsibilities and diminished motivation (Sengupta, 2020). Now leaders had a dilemma. Should they focus on achieving higher performance or on achieving higher member satisfaction?

Ohio State Studies

The Ohio State Leadership Studies also called The Ohio State Model of Leader Behavior is a behavioral leadership theory that explains how leaders' behavior affects the group's performance and achievement of desired goals. This leadership ignores the concept of trait leadership theory that says great leaders are born not made. But, it states leaders' effectiveness depends upon behavior, and through learning and practicing anyone can be a great leader. In 1945, a group of researchers at Ohio State University conducted a series of studies to find out the behaviors of leaders that make them effective. The goal was to identify the independent dimensions of leaders’ behavior and to determine the effect of these dimensions on work performance and satisfaction (Mahesh, 2023).

They identified two types of leadership behaviors i.e. initiating structure and consideration. Leaders with consideration behavior show concern for subordinates and attempt to maintain a friendly and supportive working environment. These leaders are more democratic and focus on building a good work culture in the team and then expect the work from their subordinates. The people oriented leaders are focusing their behaviors on ensuring that the inner needs of the people are satisfied. Thus they will seek to motivate their staff through emphasizing the human relation. People oriented leaders still focus on the task and the results; they just achieve them through different means (Mahesh, 2023).

Initiating structure defines a strong organizational structure that is a hierarchy of leadersubordinate. The task concerned leaders are focusing their behaviors on the organizational structure, the operating procedures (S.O.P.) and they like to keep control. Task-oriented leaders are still concerned with their staff motivation; however it's not their main concern. Leaders with high initiating structures tend to follow the scalar chain strictly. They focus more on job output instead of maintaining good human relations in the group. They maintain a formal line of communication, make all necessary decisions themselves, clearly define the tasks & responsibilities, and expect subordinates to follow their instructions (Mahesh, 2023).

The Ohio State Leadership Studies showed that initiating structure and consideration are two distinct dimensions and not mutually exclusive. They found these two critical characteristics of leadership either of which could be high or low, or independent of each other. Hence, leadership behavior can be plotted on two separate axes rather than a single continuum. The 4 quadrants above show various initiating structures and consideration. In each quadrant, there is a relative mixture of initiating structure and consideration, and a manager can adopt any style (Minhaz, n.d.)

According to the Ohio State Leadership Studies, the combination of high initiating structure and high consideration behavior results in better outcomes for organizations and businesses (Lindberg, 2022). High-high leaders (high in consideration and high in initiating structure) achieved high subordinate performance and satisfaction, but not in all situations (Robbins, 2020, p. 483). Thus, a perfect leader displays high levels of both Initiating Structure and Consideration behaviors.  The Ohio State leadership studies came to the conclusion that it is not the leadership traits that make great leaders rather it is the behavior of leaders. As such, this leadership approach opens up the way that anyone learning to become a leader can be a leader (Mahesh, 2023).

University of Michigan 

The studies conducted at the University of Michigan shared the same hopes as that of University of Iowa which was to identify behavioral characteristics of leaders that are related to performance effectiveness (Robbins, 2021, p. 485). The study conducted at this university came up with two dimensions of leadership behavior which they labeled employeeoriented and production-oriented (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).

Employee-oriented leaders were described as those who emphasized interpersonal relationships (Robbins, 2020, p. 485).  They prioritize the well-being and satisfaction of their employees, viewing them as valued partners. These leaders understand the importance of recognizing and rewarding employee achievements. An inclusive climate is fostered by the organization, wherein team members perceive themselves as esteemed and indispensable contributors to the business, since their opinions are acknowledged and considered (Hone, n.d.). Lastly, they believe that if the employees are happy, everything else will follow.

Production-oriented leaders, on the other hand, tended to emphasize the task aspects of the job (Robbins, 2020, p. 485) They put a high value on reaching their goals and objectives. To do this, they often make sure everyone stays focused and completes their part of the project by giving them clear instructions, dates, and tasks  (Varsity, 2021). They focus on making methods that are easy for everyone on the team to follow (Indeed, 2023).  This helps maintain focus and can increase productivity.  Production-oriented leaders see team members as a means to an end. In contrast to employee-oriented leaders who focus on the well-being and satisfaction of their employees, production-oriented leaders put the tasks and processes first. They believe that if the tasks are completed efficiently, everything else will follow.

The study concludes that employee-oriented leaders are the most effective since they established high performance goals and displayed supportive behavior toward subordinates (Daft, 2016, p. 523). Production-oriented leaders, on the other hand, are less competent at their jobs because they care more about meeting deadlines, keeping costs low, and getting things done quickly and efficiently, rather than meeting goals and meeting people's needs (Daft, 2016, p. 523).

Managerial Grid

Building on the work of the Ohio State and Michigan studies, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton of the University of Texas proposed the Managerial Grid, which was later restated by Robert Blake and Anne Adams McCanse as the Leadership Grid (Daft, 2016, p. 523).

● The grid is a matrix that characterizes leaders based on two dimensions, ranking them on a scale of 1-9, 1 being the lowest and 9 the highest.

➔ The 1st dimension (the y-axis) is concern for people. This represents the degree to which the leader considers the needs of their team members when deciding how best to complete a task. So leaders with a high concern for people will take into account each team member's preferred type of task and their personal development needs, etc. 

➔ The 2nd dimension (the x-axis) is concern for production/result. Leaders with a high concern for production emphasize deadlines, goals, and high productivity when determining how best to achieve a task.

Blake and Mouton partition the grid into five styles of management:

1.     Impoverished Management (1,1 or low concern for production, low concern for people)

➔ The focus is low on both people and results. If you're this type of leader, you're indifferent to both people and results. You are not interested in getting the job done, nor are you interested in creating a motivated team. This typically means tasks aren't being completed to the standard required by the organization, and it also usually means that team members will be dissatisfied except for you. This style of leadership is only advisable if you have a highly motivated and competent team working for you, but even then, you should very rarely use this style (Dennis, 2019).

2.     Task Management (9,1 or high concern for production, low concern for people)

➔ You embody this type of leadership if you're solely interested in results, showing little concern for your team. This style often tends to be autocratic, viewing the team merely as a means to achieve results and nothing more. While it can yield impressive results initially, the impact is usually short-lived. Over time, morale declines as team members feel neglected and their needs go unaddressed. There's a risk of being so fixated on delivering results that the broader needs of the organization are overlooked. For instance, you might resist collaborating with another department, considering it a distraction from your targets. This style is suitable in urgent situations, like when an organization requires a turnaround (Dennis, 2019).

3.     Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5, or medium concern for production, medium concern for people)

➔ You embody this type of leadership if you aim to find a middle ground, balancing the needs of the organization and your team. At first glance, this management style may appear to be an ideal compromise, but it falls short due to a constant need to compromise. You'll struggle to advocate strongly for results and fail to fully meet the needs of your team. Consequently, neither people nor production needs are adequately addressed, resulting in very average outcomes. This type of leadership is only appropriate if you choose to entrust one of your teams to their own devices while you temporarily focus on higher priorities (Dennis, 2019).

➔ A manager who seeks a balance between achieving tasks and maintaining good relationships within the team but may not excel in either aspect, often settling for a mediocre approach.

4.     Country Club Management (1,9, or low concern for production, high concern for people)

➔ You embody this type of leadership if you prioritize the needs of your team over achieving organizational results. Your team will enjoy working for you, but production is likely to suffer. Managers with this leadership style often mistakenly assume that a happy team will automatically work hard and yield impressive results. However, this is not true. While the working environment may be pleasant, it may lack productivity, and ultimately, your team may lose respect for you due to your failure to deliver results. This style can be used if your team has been working exceptionally hard and is at risk of burnout. However, as a long-term strategy, it's usually a recipe for disaster (Dennis, 2019).

➔ A manager who prioritizes a friendly and comfortable work environment, often at the expense of setting high performance standards, leading to a lack of motivation and accountability among team members.

5.     Team Management (9,9, or high concern for production, high concern for people)

➔ The final style is the team management style. If you're this type of leader, you demand great results and also work hard to meet the needs of your team.

➔ According to the model, this is the best type of leader to be most of the time. You're working to achieve long-term success, which means you're committed to achieving the goals of the organization and encouraging your team to commit to those goals, take responsibility, and develop themselves. If you work for this type of leader, you'll feel respected, trusted, empowered, and your development needs will be met. Consequently, you'll be committed to achieving the best results you can. With this style, personal needs and production needs overlap. It's ideal to strive to be this type of leader all the time, apart from when one of the other styles may be more appropriate for a very specific situation (Dennis, 2019).

Among the five styles analyzed, researchers found that managers excelled when employing a 9,9 style. Unfortunately, the grid failed to address what specific qualities contribute to managerial effectiveness, serving merely as a structure for understanding leadership styles. There is limited evidence endorsing the notion that a 9,9 style universally proves most effective in every circumstance (Robbins, 2020, p. 484).

Module 7B – Motivation Theories

1. Job Characteristic Model ● Diagram:

● Description:

The Job Characteristics Model, developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, focuses on redesigning jobs to enhance employees' work experience and productivity (Daft, 2016, p. 571). The model comprises three main components: core job dimensions, critical psychological states, and employee growth-need strength.

Core job dimensions include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. The model posits that incorporating these dimensions into a job increases employee motivation, performance, work quality, and satisfaction.

Critical psychological states, such as experienced meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of actual results, result from specific core job dimensions and contribute to high work motivation, performance, satisfaction, and low absenteeism and turnover.

Employee growth-need strength, the final component, suggests that individuals with a high need for growth respond more favorably to the model.

●                 Effectiveness:

The Job Characteristics Model effectively promotes employee motivation and satisfaction by emphasizing the importance of core job dimensions and their impact on psychological states. By addressing factors like skill variety, task identity, and autonomy, the model provides a framework for designing jobs that align with individual growth needs. Vreede (2023) stated that the Job Characteristic Model can help organizations in the following ways:

●                 Helps design job strategies

●                 Enhances job satisfaction

●                 Ensures job enrichment

●                 Better task delegation

●                 Clear organizational information Sample scenario:

○ Imagine a software development company aiming to improve employee motivation and satisfaction. Using the JCM, the management identifies key core job dimensions—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback—and incorporates them into the job roles.

■ Skill Variety: Engineers are given opportunities to work on diverse projects involving different programming languages, tools, and technologies.

■ Task Identity: Instead of working on isolated components, engineers are assigned to projects where they can see the entire development process, from coding to testing and deployment.

■ Task Significance: Projects are chosen and structured to impact clients and end-users meaningfully, emphasizing the importance of each engineer's contribution.

■ Autonomy: Engineers are granted more autonomy in decision-making, allowing them to choose the best approaches and solutions for their assigned tasks.

■ Feedback: Regular feedback mechanisms are established, including code reviews, project evaluations, and performance assessments, providing engineers with clear insights into the results of their efforts.

○ As a result of these changes, software engineers experience increased levels of meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of actual results—the critical psychological states outlined in the Job Characteristics Model. They find their work more engaging, feel a greater sense of responsibility for project outcomes, and have a clearer understanding of the impact of their contributions.

○ The    employees,  especially    those   with high growth-need      strength,      respond positively to the redesigned jobs. They report higher motivation levels, improved job satisfaction, and personal and professional growth. Additionally, the company observes reduced absenteeism and turnover among the software engineering team. ● Drawbacks:

Despite its strengths, the Job Characteristics Model has drawbacks related to cultural variations. The model may be less effective in economically disadvantaged countries or those with high power distance. The intrinsic factors that motivate employees in one cultural context, such as autonomy and recognition, might impact others differently. This cultural sensitivity limitation suggests that organizations should consider contextual factors when applying the model globally. Additionally, the model's focus on individual growth needs may need to address collective or team-based dynamics fully, potentially overlooking important aspects of job satisfaction and performance. Organizations should be cautious in assuming universal applicability and adapt the model to fit their workforce's specific cultural and contextual nuances.

In a paper by Fried and Ferris (1987), the model faced criticism regarding its validity, the relationship between objective and perceived job characteristics, and inconsistencies in factor solutions. Additionally, the effectiveness of the multiplicative strategy and the model's ability to predict both psychological and behavioral outcomes are questioned, indicating potential limitations and areas for further refinement. In conclusion, while the Job Characteristics Model offers valuable insights into understanding and enhancing job satisfaction and performance, its application should be approached with awareness of its limitations.

Sample scenario:

●  Despite the initial success in enhancing motivation and satisfaction for software engineers in a thriving tech company through the Job Characteristics Model (JCM), challenges arise when applying the model in a different cultural context

○ Cultural variation. The company expands its operations to an economically disadvantaged country with a high power distance culture. In this new setting, the emphasis on autonomy and recognition, crucial components of the JCM, needs to resonate more strongly with the local workforce. The cultural variation in what motivates employees becomes evident, challenging the universal applicability of the JCM.

○ Neglect of collective dynamic. Additionally, the model's individual-focused approach neglects the importance of collective dynamics within the team. The local workforce, accustomed to a more collaborative work culture, experiences dissatisfaction as the JCM's emphasis on individual growth needs overlooks the significance of team-based contributions.

●  The drawbacks become more apparent as the cultural nuances reveal limitations in the model's effectiveness, prompting the need for a more context-specific approach that considers collective motivations and cultural variations.

2. Job Engagement ● Description:

According to motivational theories in management, employee job engagement encompasses the degree to which employees have the incentive to contribute to a company's accomplishment of organizational objectives and have the capacity to expend time and energy to execute obligations highly critical to fulfilling organizational goals. Business entities and corporate managers can boost satisfaction and efficiency among all workers by fostering a more positive and compassionate work environment (Thompson, 2023).

●  Effectiveness:

Following this model, businesses with excellent employee enthusiasm and loyalty reap the advantages of reduced staff turnover and absenteeism, better client retention, and elevated innovation and creative thinking. It highlights the significance of guiding employees in all areas of need, particularly mental, physiological, and emotional support. The job engagement model is an effective strategy for enhancing workplace employee involvement and inspiration.

Sample scenario:

●  Imagine a metropolitan company specializing in cutting-edge technology solutions faced challenges with employee turnover and a perceived lack of innovation. They used the Job engagement theory by implementing these:

○ Employee Wellness program. The company implemented comprehensive wellness programs, including counseling services, fitness programs, stress management workshops, and ergonomic workstations. This enhanced employee well-being, reduced absenteeism, improved mental health, and increased job satisfaction.

○ Communication and  Recognition.  The  management       prioritized transparent communication       and  established       a      recognition system for outstanding employee performance that contributed to higher employee morale, increased motivation, and strengthened team cohesion.

○ Flexible Work Arrangements. They also introduced flexible work arrangements, such as remote options and flexible hours, acknowledging diverse employee needs that increased job satisfaction, a better work-life balance, and positively impacted employee retention.

●  In conclusion, applying the Job Engagement theory successfully facilitated a profound shift in the company's culture, effectively addressing challenges and contributing to a more engaged, satisfied, and innovative workforce.

●  Drawbacks:

A potential drawback is that the method might not prove appropriate for every staff member, as individuals will have particular demands and incentives that a one-size-fits-all approach might overlook. Furthermore, certain staff members might get overwhelmed by the stringent demands set for them to be perpetually motivated and involved, which can result in burnout or disinterest. A further potential drawback is that the job engagement structure might fail to tackle deeper problems triggering employee dissatisfaction, such as ineffective leadership, a lack of resources, or insufficient education and training. The job engagement theory establishes excessive focus on individual staff participation instead of dealing with systemic issues within an organization that might have been causing a decline in employee engagement levels.

Sample scenario:

●  A marketing agency implementing job engagement faces challenges despite the best intentions due to the one-size-fits-all approach.

○ Individual Diversity Oversight. The method may only prove appropriate for some staff members, overlooking individual demands and incentives. Despite diverse needs, the uniform application of Job Engagement must include specific requirements, leading to a need for tailored support for employees with unique motivations.

○ Potential for Burnout. Stringent demands for perpetual motivation and involvement might overwhelm certain staff members, leading to burnout or disinterest. The relentless pursuit of perpetual engagement, without considering individual thresholds, results in some employees experiencing burnout, diminishing the overall effectiveness of the theory.

●  The Job Engagement theory's drawback lies in its potential oversight of individual diversity and the risk of burnout, emphasizing the need for a more nuanced and adaptable approach to employee engagement strategies.

3. Social Learning Theory ● Description:

Social learning theory suggests that an individual's motivation is not solely shaped by direct experiences of rewards and punishments but also by observing others (Daft, 2016, p. 569). This theory emphasizes that individuals learn by witnessing others' behaviors and consequences. For instance, children may exhibit exemplary behavior in school after observing that well-behaved peers receive positive teacher attention. Robbins and Coulter (2021, p. 435) determined the four processes that affect an individual social learning viewpoint:

●  Attentional processes involve learning from a model by recognizing and focusing on critical features, with more significant influence from models perceived as attractive, consistently available, necessary, or similar.

●  Retention processes determine a model's influence based on how well an individual remembers the model's actions, even when the model is no longer readily available.

●  Motor reproduction processes translate observed behavior into action, demonstrating the individual's ability to perform the modeled activities.

●  Reinforcement processes motivate individuals to exhibit modeled behavior through positive incentives or rewards, leading to increased attention, better learning, and more frequent performance of reinforced behaviors.

Managers can leverage social learning to boost motivation by facilitating opportunities for individuals to observe, accurately perceive, remember, and acquire the necessary skills for desired behaviors. Ensuring that individuals recognize the organizational rewards associated with these behaviors is crucial for compelling vicarious motivation. Managers often employ on-the-job training methods, pairing new employees with exemplary models. Recognizing and promoting top performers' strengths further contributes to social learning, creating a culture where positive behaviors are observed, acknowledged, and rewarded.

●      Effectiveness:

The social learning theory proves effective in understanding and shaping behavior by recognizing the influential role of observational learning. By emphasizing the impact of modeling and vicarious experiences, this theory provides a comprehensive framework for motivation. Managers can strategically apply these principles to cultivate positive organizational behaviors, promoting a culture of continuous learning and improvement.

Sample scenario:

●  A tech company with a new software developer, Sarah, tried to enhance her learning and motivation using the Social Learning Theory and proved effective in terms of:

○ Accelerated Learning for Newbies. Social Learning Theory is effective for newbies like Sarah, as she observes experienced colleagues solving complex coding issues during collaborative projects. This accelerates her learning by providing real-world examples and practical insights into problem-solving strategies, bypassing traditional learning curves.

○ Motivation through Vicarious Experiences. Sarah witnesses her peers being positively acknowledged and rewarded for innovative solutions. The theory's emphasis on vicarious experiences becomes evident as Sarah is motivated by observing others' success, driving her to strive for excellence and contribute creatively to the team.

○ Cultivating a Learning Culture. The manager strategically applies the social learning principles by pairing Sarah with seasoned developers for on-the-job training. This facilitates observation and fosters a culture where learning from peers is encouraged, creating an environment of continuous improvement and knowledge sharing.

●  In conclusion, Social Learning Theory effectively shapes behavior. It motivates individuals, particularly newcomers like Sarah, by providing accelerated learning, leveraging vicarious experiences for motivation, and contributing to developing a positive learning culture within the organization.

●  Drawbacks:

However, a drawback of social learning theory lies in its potential oversimplification of the complexity of human behavior. It may need to fully account for individual differences, cognitive processes, and the dynamic interplay of various factors influencing motivation. Additionally, the theory assumes that observed behaviors accurately translate into learned behaviors, overlooking the potential for misinterpretation or selective attention. Critics argue that social learning theory might need to address the intricate nuances of human motivation and behavior adequately.

Sample Scenario:

●  In a corporate setting, employees attend a leadership development workshop where the principles of Social Learning Theory are applied to enhance managerial skills. However, potential drawbacks can occur.

○ Oversimplification of Human Behavior. During the workshop, the theory oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior by presenting a one-size-fits-all approach to leadership, neglecting the participants' diverse backgrounds, personalities, and individual differences.

○ Potential for Misinterpretation or Selective Attention. As employees engage in role-playing activities to model effective leadership behaviors, the theory assumes that observed behaviors accurately translate into learned behaviors. However, some participants may need to be more accurate and selectively attend to specific aspects, leading to a potential gap between intended and acquired leadership skills.

● In conclusion, the drawback of Social Learning Theory becomes apparent in a leadership development workshop where oversimplification and the assumption of accurate behavior translation overlook the intricate nuances of human motivation and behavior, highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding.

Motivation Theories Transcript

(Self-Determination, Goal Setting, & Self-Efficacy Theories)

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY

●  Studies on the relationship between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation and how they influence each other.

●  Specifies whether an activity is deemed intrinsically motivating or not.

●  Proposes that there are 3 psychological needs:

1. Autonomy - the free will and control of a person to do things on their own

2. Competence - the ability or skill of an individual to do his/her work

3. Relatedness - the capability of a person to connect and relate with others

Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

●  Stems from the "low-order" needs (from Adelfer's Existence in his ERG theory) of individuals in an organization.

●  These "outside of the person" factors such as salaries or rewards, working conditions, praise, etc. are known as extrinsic rewards.

Example: A child will eat vegetables if s/he is told by his/her parents that there will be dessert afterward. This motivates the child to eat for the promise of an extrinsic reward in the form of dessert.

Intrinsic Motivation

●  Pertains to "inside of the person" it satisfies our "higher order" needs (from Adelfer's ERG) which are Relatedness and Growth.

●      Have intrinsic rewards, these rewards are something we give to ourselves.

Example: The hobbies that we have don’t necessarily grant us material rewards upon doing them. Instead, we gain fulfillment or satisfaction from these tasks.

Implications

●  Jobs that tend to be uninteresting or unfulfilling to people must be compensated with extrinsic factors (high wages) in order to entice them and sustain work performance as a contingency.

Example: Factory jobs are tedious and repetitive. Hence, the theory proposes that the extrinsic rewards must be increased as a contingency to entice and encourage the employees to keep working.

●  Jobs that are interesting are suggested to double down on intrinsic factors.

●  Better extrinsic rewards in these kinds of jobs don’t exactly equate to better intrinsic rewards.

Effectiveness

1.  Allows more autonomy between employees within an organization.

2.  Encourages the formation of relationships amongst each other.

3.  Promotes better creativity and performance.

Drawbacks

1.               Focuses more on individualistic culture - as the name implies, the SDT tackles the individual, which may be a problem as not all organizations have individualistic perspectives on their employees.

2.               Collective cultures are disregarded - this theory doesn’t apply to all working environments as some may value collectivistic practices compared to just focusing on oneself.

3.               Room for exploitation - considering that this theory implies that intrinsic rewards should be more prioritized than extrinsic rewards, this leaves room for companies to exploit their employees through means such as low salaries and poor working conditions.

GOAL SETTING THEORY

●  Described by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham

●  Proposes that managers can increase motivation and enhance performance by setting specific, challenging goals, and then helping people track their progress toward goal achievement by providing timely feedback.

Components of Goal-Setting Theory

1.               Goal specificity - refers to the degree to which goals are concrete and unambiguous. It is imperative to set specific goals so that the subordinates can focus on more specific tasks. The thing is, if goal specificity is ignored there is a tendency for employees to do more unnecessary work that only prolongs the achievement of organizational goals.

2.               Goal Difficulty - it is also essential to set challenging goals rather than easy ones. This is because if easy goals are the ones only determined, it only provides little challenge to the employees, preventing them from utilizing the most of their abilities to contribute significantly, and preventing skill growth that may be advantageous for future goals. It also affects their perceptions and feelings about the goals they are working to obtain. More challenging goals lead to greater satisfaction levels and feelings of accomplishment when achieved. This can lead to increased work productivity for the employees.

3.               Goal Acceptance - it is important for employees to accept and be committed to the predetermined goals in order for them to work more effectively towards reaching these goals. One of the ways to increase employee goal acceptance is to encourage them to participate in the goal-setting process by asking for their insights and opinions.

4.               Feedback - providing regular feedback is needed to check on the work progress of the employees from time to time. This assessment information will guide them to know which areas they need to focus on and improve to efficiently achieve the organizational goal. However, there is also a self-feedback which basically means that individuals can monitor their progress towards an organizational goal. This has been found to be more effective in urging motivation than external feedback.

Goal setting Process:

1.  Self-set - employees decide the goals they want to achieve.

2.  Participative - are jointly set wherein the employee goes to the manager and they set goals together. This may be done depending on the skill set of the employee and the goal the organization needs to meet.

3.  Assigned - the managers are the ones setting the goal needed to be met by the employee.

4.  Do your best goal - can be self-set, participative, or assigned. This goal is vague so it doesn't result in the best performance as too much work can lead to burnout and decreased motivation.

Effectiveness

1.  Enables people to focus their energies in the right direction

2.  Energize behavior because people feel compelled to develop plans and strategies that keep them focused on achieving the targets.

3.  Specific, difficult goals encourage people to put forth high levels of effort.

4.  When goals are achieved, motivation levels are increased

Drawbacks

1.  Difficult goals can lead to poor performance because of incompatible actions.

2.  Trying to reach challenging goals can lead to risky behavior that may harm the organization.

3.  Trying to accomplish difficult goals to the point that it is unfeasible can lead to employees' poor performance and decreased motivation to actually complete the goal due to incompatible actions that do not significantly help in reaching organizational objectives.

4.  Complex goals can lead to risky decisions in pursuit of achieving them efficiently which may cause damage to the organization rather than obtaining them efficiently.

5.  Setting goals in one area can lead people to neglect other areas covered by their work. It is important to ensure that all areas of work are done and checked.

6.  Goal setting also sometimes has unintended consequences such as creating an unhealthy environment wherein employees compete with one another which may lead to an employee sabotaging others' work.

7.  Goal setting can be used by managers to set unfeasible and impossible goals which gives them the authority to criticize subordinates even when the employees are doing their best. It should be remembered that goal setting should never be abused.

SELF-EFFICACY THEORY

●      Developed by Albert Bandura

●      Emphasizes the importance of the individual and the individual's perceptions of his/her personal capabilities as key determinants of successful outcomes. (Gallagher, 2012)

●      Self-efficacy is an individual's strong belief in their ability to accomplish a specific task or outcome successfully.

●      It is a dimension of self-confidence, which refers to general assurance in one's own ideas, judgment, and capabilities.

●      Personality traits, emotions, and characteristics such as self-confidence and self-efficacy influence how people behave, including how they handle work situations and relate to others. (Daft, 2016, p. 472)

●      J. K. Rowling exemplified self-efficacy by maintaining her belief in the possibility of publishing her inaugural book on Harry Potter, even in the face of numerous rejections.

(Daft, 2016, p. 474)

Factors Determining the Self-Efficacy (Lopez-Garrido, 2023)

1. Performance Outcomes - Past successes and failures at similar tasks impact self-efficacy the most. Succeeding builds belief you can do it again while failing undermines self-efficacy.

2. Vicarious Experience - Observing others, especially those similar to you, succeed or fail at a task impacts your own self-efficacy. Seeing others succeed raises your belief you can as well while seeing failure lowers your self-efficacy.

3. Verbal Persuasion - Encouragement from others that you have the ability to succeed can boost self-efficacy. Disparaging remarks undermine it. Feedback plays a role.

4. Physiological Feedback - How you interpret things like nerves, stress, anxiety etc. impacts self-efficacy. Viewing these sensations positively as excitement rather than negatively as stress keeps self-efficacy higher. Interpreting them as signs of inability lowers self-efficacy.

Self-Efficacy Theory Applications (Lopez-Garrido, 2023)

1. Promoting a healthy lifestyle - According to Bandura (1988), when individuals have confidence in their ability to carry out healthy behaviors, they are more likely to engage in them. For instance, having higher levels of self-efficacy can help individuals stick to an exercise routine, contributing to both physical and mental well-being. Self-efficacy also plays a role in adopting other healthy lifestyle choices, such as maintaining a healthy diet or quitting smoking. Health psychologists believe that self-efficacy can be applied to promote a healthy lifestyle in various aspects of one's life.

2. Enhances Academic Success - According to research by Mart van Dinther (2011) and colleagues, self-efficacy is connected to various aspects of academic success. It influences the strategies students use, the goals they set for themselves, and their overall academic achievements. Higher levels of self-efficacy are associated with healthier student habits, suggesting that individuals with stronger self-efficacy are more likely to perform well in school and exhibit better organizational skills.

3. Treating Phobias - Bandura (1982) conducted an experiment to explore the use of self-efficacy in treating phobias. He divided participants into two groups: one group interacted directly with their fear (snakes), while the other group observed someone else engaging with the fear. The results indicated that the participants who directly confronted their phobia demonstrated higher self-efficacy and less avoidance compared to the observation group. This suggests that personal experience is more effective than mere observation in building self-efficacy and overcoming fears.

Drawbacks

1. Research Method is Unconvincing -: Eastman and Marzillier (1984) doubted whether the non-phobic of snakes could produce similar efficacy expectations when two types of snakes: poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes, were considered. According to Eastman and Marzillier (1984), the efficacy expectations in the case of poisonous snakes would be low due to an outcome expectation that the snakes might bite.

2. There is a Neglect of Environment - Biglan (1997) argued that Bandura's self-efficacy disregarded the role of the environment on an individual. Accordingly, Biglan (1997) criticized that Bandura had entirely ignored the effect of the surrounding environment on individuals' behaviors in his study of self-efficacy.

Module 7 - LEADING (Motivation Theories)

Group Report

Yellow – script

Content Perspectives on Motivation (Daft, 2016, p.555)

●       Content theories of motivation focus on identifying and understanding the various needs that drive people.

●       These needs act as internal forces that compel individuals to engage in specific behaviors in order to satisfy them.

●       In essence, our needs serve as a concealed catalog of desires, and by comprehending the huse needs, managers can structure reward systems to align with them. This understanding enables managers to guide employees' efforts and priorities towards achieving organizational objectives.

  I.   Maslow - Hierarchy of needs theory (Daft, 2016, pp.556 - 557)

A. Background

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory is a prominent content theory of motivation that suggests individuals are driven by various needs arranged in a hierarchical order.

The hierarchy includes:

1.      physiological needs (such as food and water), most basic human physical needs. In the organizational setting, they are reflected in the needs for adequate heat, air, and base salary to ensure survival.

2.      safety needs (for a secure environment), include a safe and secure physical and emotional environment and freedom from threats—that is, for freedom from violence and for an orderly society. In the workplace, safety needs reflect the needs for safe jobs, fringe benefits, and job security.

3.      belongingness needs (desire for social acceptance), desire to be accepted by one’s peers, have friendships, be part of a group, and be loved. In the organization, these needs influence the desire for good relationships with coworkers, participation in a work group, and a positive relationship with supervisors.

4.      esteem needs (for recognition and positive self-image), needs relate to the desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention, recognition, and appreciation from others. Within organizations, esteem needs reflect a motivation for recognition, an increase in responsibility, high status, and credit for contributions to the organization.

5.      self-actualization needs (fulfilling one's potential). include the need for self-fulfillment, which is the highest need category. They concern developing one’s full potential, increasing one’s competence, and becoming a better person. Self-actualization needs can be met in the organization by providing people with opportunities to grow, be creative, and acquire training for challenging assignments and advancement.

According to Maslow, lower-order needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs become relevant. For instance, physiological needs take precedence over safety needs, and so on. Once a need is fulfilled, it diminishes in significance, paving the way for the activation of the next higher-level need.

B. Effectiveness

●       Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory has demonstrated effectiveness in understanding and addressing motivational factors within organizational contexts. One key aspect of its effectiveness lies in its recognition of the diverse and hierarchical nature of human needs. By acknowledging that individuals have a range of needs organized in a specific order, the theory provides a structured framework for comprehending and addressing motivational dynamics.

●       The theory's practical application is evident in organizational management, particularly in the design of reward systems and employee engagement strategies.

o For example, the emphasis on physiological needs underscores the importance of providing a competitive salary, adequate working conditions, and essential benefits. This understanding has practical implications for businesses, as seen in the case of

Burgerville, where addressing the need for job security through health insurance

premium coverage led to reduced turnover, increased employee effort, improved service, and higher sales.

●       Maslow's theory sheds light on the social and psychological aspects of motivation. Belongingness and esteem needs highlight the significance of positive workplace relationships, recognition, and appreciation. Companies like Intuit, as mentioned in the example, have effectively implemented practices that acknowledge employees' contributions, fostering a sense of belonging and fulfilling esteem needs. This recognition not only boosts morale but also enhances employee commitment and motivation.

●       The theory's acknowledgment of self-actualization needs emphasizes the importance of providing opportunities for personal and professional growth, creativity, and skill development. Organizations that invest in employee training, challenging assignments, and advancement opportunities align with the theory's proposition that individuals seek to fulfill their highest potential.

C. Drawbacks

●       Insufficient Empirical support - Maslow's theory about needs hierarchy has been criticized because there isn't enough solid proof to support it. Some say that research doesn't consistently confirm the hierarchy, which makes it hard for managers to trust it as a strong and evidence-based tool for managing organizations.

●       Overemphasis on Hierarchy- The hierarchical nature of Maslow's theory may not be universally applicable. In some cases, individuals may prioritize higher-level needs even if lower-level needs are not fully satisfied.

●       Cultural variations - the hierarchy might not be consistent across different cultures. Cultural variation in needs and priorities can have an impact on the relevance and application of Maslow’s theory.

Example : In a Western individualistic culture, such as the United States, there is often a strong emphasis on individual achievement and self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy, which places self-actualization at the top, may align well with the cultural values of personal growth, autonomy, and pursuing one's own goals.

However, in a collectivist culture, such as many Asian societies, the emphasis may be more on the well-being of the group and maintaining harmonious social relationships. In such cultures, social needs and a sense of belonging (which Maslow places in the middle of the hierarchy) might be more fundamental and prioritized over individual self-actualization.

So, cultural variation comes into play when considering which needs are perceived as more critical or fundamental. Maslow's theory assumes a universal hierarchy, but the emphasis on each level of needs can shift based on cultural norms and values.

II.    Herzberg -Two-factor theory (Daft,2016, pp. 559-560)

A. Background

Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory is a significant motivation theory that identifies two distinct sets of factors influencing employee behavior at work.

●       Herzberg conducted interviews with workers to distinguish between factors associated with job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) and those related to job satisfaction and motivation (motivators).

Hygiene factors include aspects like working conditions, pay, company policies, and interpersonal relationships. Improvement in hygiene factors eliminates dissatisfaction but does not necessarily lead to high motivation.

Motivators, on the other hand, focus on higher-level needs such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growth opportunities. Herzberg argued that the presence of motivators leads to high motivation and job satisfaction, while their absence results in neutral feelings toward work.

●       The practical implication for managers is to address hygiene factors to eliminate dissatisfaction and then leverage motivators to stimulate high achievement and satisfaction.

●       The theory underscores the importance of recognizing and providing challenges and growth opportunities to employees, as these motivators significantly impact performance and overall satisfaction.

B. Effectiveness

●       The effectiveness of Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory is demonstrated in its ability to guide managers in creating a work environment that not only prevents dissatisfaction but also fosters motivation and high performance.

●       Motivators, such as recognition, play a crucial role in boosting job satisfaction. When employees receive acknowledgement for their efforts, it not only validates their work but also contributes to a positive self-image and a sense of achievement.

●       Recognition fosters a supportive and appreciative work culture, leading to increased morale and a more satisfying work environment.

o The theory aligns with the contemporary understanding that employee recognition plays a crucial role in motivation, as evidenced by survey (recent Globoforce MoodTracker Survey) results indicating that 82 percent of employees feel more motivated when recognized for their efforts.

●       This recognition, along with challenges and growth opportunities, contributes to increased job satisfaction and commitment, emphasizing the relevance of motivators in enhancing organizational performance. Employees who are given challenging responsibilities are more likely to feel engaged and fulfilled in their roles. The sense of accomplishment derived from overcoming challenges contributes to a positive perception of one's work, leading to increased job satisfaction.

●       In summary, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory highlights the importance of addressing both hygiene factors and motivators to create a workplace where employees are not only content but also motivated to excel. By emphasizing the role of motivators in job satisfaction and commitment, the theory provides insights that can guide managers in fostering an environment conducive to enhanced organizational performance.

C. Drawbacks

●       Limited Applications - the theory mainly focuses on job satisfaction and does not consider other aspects of motivation.

●       Herzberg's theory might have limited applicability because the motivators identified in the theory, such as recognition and advancement, may not be as prominent or impactful in a setting where job tasks are less inherently satisfying. In such an environment, factors like job security and working conditions (hygiene factors) might play a more critical role in motivating employees.

●       Overlooking Individual Differences - The theory assumes a universal set of motivators and hygiene factors, overlooking individual differences and preferences.

●       Individual team members have diverse preferences and motivations. While some may indeed be motivated by recognition and achievement, others may prioritize work-life balance, job stability, or opportunities for skill development.In this case, the manager's failure to recognize and address individual differences could lead to a mismatch between the provided motivators and the actual needs of the employees. To effectively motivate a diverse team, managers need to consider and acknowledge individual preferences and create their motivational strategies accordingly.

III.   McClelland- Three needs theory (Daft, 2016, p.560)

A. Background

David McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory proposes that certain needs are acquired during an individual's lifetime, shaped by early life experiences. Unlike innate needs, these are learned through personal development.

●       The theory identifies three key acquired needs:

1.      the need for achievement (accomplishing difficult tasks),

2.      the need for affiliation (forming close relationships), and

3.      the need for power (desiring influence and control over others).

McClelland's extensive research spanning over 20 years explored how these needs impact individuals and their roles in organizations.

●       Need for Achievement

o Involves a desire to accomplish challenging tasks, attain high success standards, master complex tasks, and surpass others.

●       Need for Affiliation

o Involves a desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish warm friendships.

●       Need for Power

o Involves a desire to influence or control others, take responsibility for others, and have authority over others.

Early life experiences shape the acquisition of these needs, with reinforcement playing a crucial role. For example, encouragement for independent actions fosters a need for achievement.

B. Effectiveness

The theory's effectiveness lies in its ability to offer nuanced insights into individual motivations, providing a framework for tailoring management strategies to maximize employee engagement and performance.

● Career Implications

○ McClelland's research correlates high need for achievement with entrepreneurial success, high need for affiliation with roles requiring strong interpersonal skills (e.g., integrators), and high need for power with ascending to top levels in organizational hierarchies. ● Managerial Insights

○ The theory provides managers with valuable insights into understanding employee motivations. For instance, recognizing employees with a high need for achievement may involve challenging tasks, while those with a high need for power may benefit from leadership opportunities. ● Longitudinal Studies

○ McClelland's long-term studies, such as the one at AT&T, demonstrated the predictive power of the theory. Managers with a high need for power were more likely to follow a path of continuous promotion, emphasizing the practical applicability of the acquired needs theory.

In the context of content theories of motivation, including the hierarchy of needs theory and the two-factor theory, the acquired needs theory contributes by focusing on needs developed through life experiences.

Managers can leverage this understanding to design work environments that align with employees' acquired needs, fostering appropriate and successful work behaviors.

C. Drawbacks

●       Rigid and Simple- the theory is too simplistic and rigid in categorizing individuals into specific need categories (achievement, affiliation, and power). Human motivation is complex, and individuals may exhibit a combination of these needs.

●       Overlap and Interconnectedness of Needs - Employee needs frequently overlap in organizational contexts. The interconnectedness of these demands is overlooked by McClelland's theory because of its sole focus on discrete categories. Managers may find it difficult to deal with the complexity of employees who are pursuing different motivations at the same time.

●       Individual differences -McClelland's theory makes understanding why employees are motivated seem too simple by putting it into just three groups. But in a workplace, things are more complicated. Employees are influenced by lots of different things like what they need, whether they like their job, and what's happening outside of work. So, the theory doesn't capture all the different factors that can affect how motivated employees are at work.

Limited predictive power - McClelland's theory might not be great at predicting how people will behave at work. It might not fully explain or predict the different ways individuals are influenced by their motivations, especially in the ever-changing and unpredictable nature of workplaces.

Reinforcement Theory

Expectancy Theory

REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement refers to anything that encourages the repetition or inhibition of a specific behavior. This concept avoids delving into the employee needs and cognitive processes outlined in content and process theories. Operational conditioning, commonly known as reinforcement theory, explores the connection between behavior and its outcomes (Robbins, 2021, pg. 434). It concentrates on altering or shaping employees' workplace behavior by judiciously applying immediate rewards and punishments.

A. Direct Reinforcement

Behavior modification refers to the collection of methods that apply reinforcement theory to alter human behavior. The fundamental premise guiding behavior modification is the law of effect, asserting that behavior receiving positive reinforcement is likely to be repeated, while behavior lacking reinforcement is less likely to recur (Daft, 2016, pg. 568).

B. Reinforcement Tools

1.     Positive Reinforcement involves providing enjoyable and rewarding outcomes after a desired behavior. Studies indicate that positive reinforcement is effective in encouraging desired behavior. Additionally, non-monetary rewards, such as positive feedback, social acknowledgment, and attention, are equally impactful compared to financial incentives (Daft, 2016, pg. 568). This approach enhances the probability that positive behavior will be repeated. An example of this is an employee consistently meets project deadlines, so the manager publicly acknowledges their efforts during a team meeting.

2.     Avoidance Learning, also known as negative reinforcement, involves eliminating an unpleasant consequence once behavior improves, thereby promoting and reinforcing the desired behavior. The concept is based on the notion that individuals will modify a

particular behavior to prevent the undesirable outcome associated with that behavior. This approach effectively enhances the likelihood of behavior being repeated (Daft, 2016, pg. 569). An example of this is a salesperson meets and exceeds monthly targets resulting in the removal of the mandatory weekend work.

3.     Punishment involves subjecting an employee to unpleasant consequences, usually in response to undesirable behavior, with the aim of decreasing the likelihood of its recurrence. The application of punishment in organizational settings is contentious and frequently criticized because it doesn't explicitly communicate the preferred behavior (Daft, 2016, pg. 569). Nevertheless, many managers acknowledge the occasional necessity of implementing various forms of punishment, ranging from verbal reprimands to employee suspensions or terminations. An example of this is a team member who consistently violates the company’s code of conduct, leading to a formal written warning from their supervisor.

4.     Extinction entails refraining from providing a positive reward, such as withholding praise or other favorable outcomes. Its effectiveness lies in diminishing the probability of the behavior being repeated. In the context of extinction, undesirable behavior is essentially disregarded, operating on the premise that behaviors lacking positive reinforcement will gradually fade away (Daft, 2016, pg. 569). For instance, the act of throwing dirty clothes on the floor was simply ignored, employing the principle of extinction. Conversely, when the husband exhibited a behavior she appreciated, like placing a dirty shirt in the hamper, positive reinforcement was applied, with expressions of gratitude or affection such as hugs and kisses.

Effectiveness of Reinforcement Theory

1.  Behavioral Modification

-           Reinforcement theory is effective in modifying and shaping behavior. By associating positive consequences with desired behavior, organizations can encourage employees to repeat those behaviors.

2.  Increased Motivation

-           Positive reinforcement, such as praise or rewards, can increase motivation. Employees who receive positive reinforcement for their efforts are likely to feel more motivated and engaged in their work.

3.  Clear Expectations

-           Reinforcement theory emphasizes setting clear expectations and providing feedback. This clarity can help employees understand what is expected of them and how their performance is being evaluated.

4.  Adaptability

-           Reinforcement strategies can be adapted to different individuals and situations. Different people may respond to different types of reinforcement, allowing for a personalized approach to motivation.

5.  Training and Skill Development

-           Reinforcement theory is often used in training programs to encourage the development of new skills. Positive reinforcement can be a powerful tool in the learning process.

Drawbacks of Reinforcement Theory

1.  Overemphasis on Rewards

-           One major drawback is the potential overemphasis on rewards. If employees become solely motivated by external rewards, intrinsic motivation may decline, and performance might suffer when rewards are not present.

2.  Inconsistency in Application

-           Inconsistency in the application of reinforcement can lead to confusion. If reinforcement is not consistently applied, employees may not understand the link between behavior and consequences.

3.  Limited Understanding of Individual Differences

-           Reinforcement theory may oversimplify the understanding of individual differences. People have diverse motivations and preferences, and a one-size-fits-all approach may not be effective for everyone.

4.  Risk of Undesirable Behavior

-           In some cases, employees may engage in undesirable behavior if they believe it will lead to positive reinforcement. This can be a challenge, especially if the reinforcement strategy is not aligned with the organization's goals and values.

5.  Ignoring Social and Environmental Factors

-           Reinforcement theory tends to focus on individual behavior without adequately considering social and environmental factors that may influence behavior. External factors, such as organizational culture, can play a significant role.

6.  Short-Term Focus

-           Reinforcement theory may foster a short-term focus on achieving rewards rather than promoting long-term goals or ethical behavior. This can lead to a lack of sustained commitment to the organization's mission.

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Expectancy theory is a motivation theory that explains work motivation as a result of an individual’s beliefs about the relationships among effort, performance, and the value of outcomes. The theory focuses on the thinking processes employed by individuals to attain rewards, rather than on the identification of certain categories of needs (Daft, 2016, p. 566). The elements of Expectancy theory are E-P expectancy, P-O expectancy, and Valence— this determines an employee's degree of motivation to accomplish a goal (Daft, 2016, p. 566). This theory proposes that individuals are motivated by the expectation that their efforts will result in high performance, which will in turn lead to desired outcomes, and that the rewards offered are valuable to them.

1.     E → P expectancy: This component entails assessing whether exerting effort on a task will result in excellent performance (Daft, 2016, p. 566). Put another way, it's the conviction that one will succeed in an endeavor if they put in the necessary effort. The person must be capable, have prior experience, and have access to the resources and opportunities needed to perform for this expectancy to be high. In other words, the individual feels that the task falls within their purview and that they possess the necessary skills and abilities to complete it successfully.

EXAMPLE: If a salesperson working in a retail setting has the belief that exerting greater effort in selling would result in larger personal sales, it may be stated that the salesperson possesses a high E →P expectancy. However, in the event that the salesperson holds the belief that he/she lack both the capability and the chance to attain a high level of performance, the expectancy will be low, and so will be salesperson’s motivation.

2.     P → O expectancy: This element involves determining whether high performance will lead to the desired outcomes (Daft, 2016, p. 567). In other words, it is the belief that if someone performs well, they will achieve the desired outcome.

EXAMPLE: A salesperson possesses a high P → O expectancy when they hold the belief that increased personal sales will result in a corresponding raise in compensation. She may be conscious of the fact that raises are approaching and may consult with her supervisor or coworkers to determine whether a surge in sales would qualify her for a more substantial increase. Otherwise, her motivation to work diligently will diminish.

3.     Valence: The valence refers to the value or attractiveness of the outcome (Daft, 2016, p. 567). It's the degree to which an individual values the outcome or reward. This element is closely related to motivation, as individuals will be more motivated to put in effort and perform if they value the outcome of their effort.

EXAMPLE: if an employee is rewarded with a promotion, the employee will be more motivated to work hard if they value the promotion as a desirable outcome. On the other hand, if an employee is not interested in a promotion, the reward has a low valence. Therefore, it is important to understand what motivates employees and to provide rewards that are valued by them.

The Effectiveness and Drawbacks of Expectancy Theory

Effectiveness:

1.               Framework for Understanding Motivation: The expectancy theory offers a thorough and clear framework for comprehending how workers' expectations of their work and results might impact their motivation. It aids in creating incentive plans that effectively raise worker engagement, improve output, and motivate workers to reach their objectives.

2.               Personalized Rewards: The theory also emphasizes how important it is to value the requirements and preferences of employees. Each employee is unique, and this customized approach may assist meet those requirements and preferences.

3.               Direct Link between Incentives and Performance: Employees will be more driven to do quality work if incentives are directly related to performance. The expectation theory places a strong emphasis on the value of providing employees with performance feedback and using incentives that support their objectives.

Drawbacks:

Although expectancy theory offers a valuable framework for comprehending employee motivation, there may be some restrictions on how successful it may be.

1.               Difficulty of Measuring Employee Expectations: The foundation of expectation theory is the expectations and perceptions of employees, which make measurement challenging. Management may find it difficult to ascertain what drives each employee as different staff members may have distinct expectations and valences. Employees might not always give accurate or trustworthy information about what is expected of them, which makes it difficult to create realistic goals and implement effective reward programs.

2.               Focus on Extrinsic Motivation Only: Extrinsic motivation is the main focus of expectation theory. It could thus not work as well in settings where intrinsic motivation is crucial. Employees may be less receptive to praise or awards from other sources if they are driven by a feeling of autonomy, mastery, and purpose. Thus, it's possible that depending exclusively on extrinsic incentives won't always result in the highest levels of employee motivation.

3.               Possibility of a Decline in Work Quality: Expectancy theory makes the assumption that workers would work harder when they think their efforts will provide the results they want. Employees could, however, get too obsessed with the benefits and lose interest in the caliber of their jobs. Employees could, for example, forego innovation out of concern that it would compromise their bonuses or compromise quality in order to reach productivity goals. As a result, there is a chance of worse performance overall and unfavorable outcomes when rewards become the exclusive emphasis.

4.               Not All Rewards are Valuable Equally: The premise of expectation theory is that workers would put in more effort to obtain rewards since they are all desirable. But not every employee values rewards the same way, and some may value particular awards more than others. For instance, some workers could appreciate a bigger income while others would prefer greater scheduling flexibility. Managers now have to concentrate on giving out awards that are significant and worthwhile to the particular recipient.

To sum up, the expectancy theory is a useful tool for motivating people, but it must be carefully applied while taking into account each person's unique requirements and preferences. The idea might offer helpful perspectives to managers who want to boost employee motivation. Before implementing rewards inside an organization, employers should, however, make sure that they meet the needs and preferences of each individual employee as well as take into account any potential downsides.


Module 7 - Leadership

Motivation Theories

Alternative work arrangements

1. Alternative work arrangements are suitable for a diverse workforce. In most cases, it provides motivation to the employees.

(In fact, employees are able to perform better in an environment that is flexible and supportive given that they are able to handle the demands of both work and personal life exhaustively (Jackson, Schuler & Werner, 2011). The employees get a feeling of empowerment when they get the ability to have work locations and schedules that suit them. There are no frictions between their personal life and work life.)

2.  Telecommuting

a. A work arrangement in which employees work at home and are linked to the workplace by computer

Advantage:

●       Work-life balance

(Allows employees to have more time for family, friends or hobbies. Allows to work anywhere, and can accomplish objectives remotely from anywhere from which we can access the Internet.)

●       Saving time and money

(Both the company and the employees will save costs, as working remotely means that they do not have to spend on petrol, office rent, transport, etc)

Disadvantage:

●   Potential for Reduced Collaboration and Communication

●   It’s harder to stay focused and avoid distractions without the structure of an office environment.

3.  Flextime

a.      Flextime is an alternative work arrangement that appears to have staying power

b.      It is a scheduling system in which employees work a specific number of hours per week and can vary their hours of work within limits

Advantage:

●   Work-life balance

●   Easier and faster commuting, rush hours can be avoided

●       Reduced stress and fatigue

Disadvantage:

●   Difficulty in supervising (scheduling meetings, and tracking working hours)

4.  Job Sharing

                    a. It is when two or more people split a full-time job

Advantage:

●   Reduced stress and burnout

●   Diverse skills and experience in a single position

●       Decreased absenteeism

Disadvantage:

●   Potential performance inequities

●       Replacing a partner and finding compatible partners may be challenging

Employee involvement

Capellan

1.  Based on a classic motivation theory, employee involvement suggests that employees will exert effort and work efficiently when they feel they are in control of their work, are given meaningful work, receive feedback on their performance, and are rewarded for the success of the business.

2.  Studies have identified a correlation between employee engagement and company performance:

●       Fully engaged employees care deeply about the organization and actively seek ways to serve the mission.

●       Actively disengaged employees, on the other hand, mean that people are undermining the organization’s success.

3.  How do managers engage employees?

●       three elements that create a sense of meaningfulness, a sense of connection, and a sense of growth.

●       (Insert employee engagement model here)

4.  When managers organize the workplace in such a way as to create these feelings, employee engagement grows leading to high motivation and high organizational performance.

●       people feel that they are working toward something important

●       people feel connected to the company, to one another, and to their managers

●       people have the chance to learn, grow, and advance

5.  Advantages

●       improved employee performance

●       increased productivity

●       improved job satisfaction

●       enhanced creativity and innovation

6.  Disadvantages

●       Manager-Employee Boundary

●       Communication Complexity

●       Increase the likelihood of conflict

●       Diminish quality of expertise

7.      When does the employee involvement approach work best?

In situations where:

●       organizations with strong company culture

●       when urgent decisions don’t need to be made often

●       creative job fields

●       when multiple solutions are beneficial

Using rewards, benefits, intrinsic rewards

1.  Motivation refers to the forces either within or external to a person that arouse persistence to pursue a certain course of action.

2.  It is the responsibility of the manager to find the right combination of motivational techniques and rewards to satisfy employees’ needs and simultaneously encourage great work performance.

3.  This simple model of motivation, drafted by Daft, shows that people have needs (such as recognition, achievement, or monetary gain), that result in behavior/action with which to fulfill those needs. To the extent that the behavior/action is successful, the employee is rewarded because the need is satisfied. The reward also informs the employee that the behavior was appropriate and can be used again in the future.

4.  Speaking of rewards, it can be classified into two,

5.  Intrinsic rewards and Extrinsic rewards.

6.  Intrinsic rewards are the satisfactions that a person receives in the process of performing a particular action.

a. For example, completing a very complex task may bestow a pleasant feeling of accomplishment, satisfaction, or self-fulfillment.

7.  On the other hand, extrinsic rewards are given by another person, typically a manager or boss or even colleague, and include promotions, praise, and pay increase. They originate externally, as a result of pleasing others.

8.  Generally, managers use these intrinsic and extrinsic techniques in combination with pain/fear and growth/pleasure.

9.  In this figure, the first and second quadrants are both negative approaches to motivating.

10.  Quadrant 1 uses negative, extrinsic methods, such as threats or punishments, to get people to perform as desired (financial penalties for not doing things rather than financial rewards for doing things).

11.  Quadrant 2 methods attempt to motivate people by tapping into their self-doubts or anxieties (motivating employees to work hard by emphasizing the weak economy and high unemployment rate [scaring employees/blackmailing?]).

12.  Quadrants 3 and 4 are positive motivational approaches.

13.  Quadrant 3 methods attempt to influence behavior by using extrinsic rewards that create pleasure (salary raise, bonuses, praise).

14.  Quadrant 4 techniques tap into deep-seated employee energy and commitment by helping people get intrinsic rewards from their work (helping employees enjoy their work or get a sense of accomplishment).

15.  (ADVANTAGE) One of the main advantages of using rewards to motivate people include increased productivity.

a.   Well-designed rewards can enhance productivity by providing employees with tangible or intangible incentives for achieving performance goals.

16.  (Talent attraction, retention, and loyalty) Offering attractive rewards can also make an organization more competitive in attracting top talent. It can also contribute to employee retention and foster loyalty to the organization.

17.  (DISADVANTAGE/DRAWBACK) However, excessive use of rewards may encourage a short-term perspective, with employees prioritizing immediate gains over long-term career development.

18.  Also, if the reward system is perceived as unfair or biased, it can lead to dissatisfaction and demotivation among employees (this was mentioned in equity theory).

19.  Lastly, The organization must also consider that individuals have diverse preferences for rewards.

A one-size-fits-all approach may not effectively motivate all kinds of employees.