Knowt
Unit 2
Public Policy Context Content Notes
Public policy influencers (two types): contextual and proximate
Contextual: focus on background framework associated with designing public policy
A indirect influence towards creating policy
Eg. political culture and the constitution
Proximate: more direct and consist of specific institutions that have a more significant impact on creating public policy
Eg. the legislature, the executive, and the courts
Contextual:
Political culture: broad pattern of beliefs, values and attitudes that citizens hold towards politics and the political system
Differs between regions, races, and historical eras
Three main specific interpretations of political culture:
Louis Hartz’s founding fragments theory
Martin Lipsets Formative Events theory
Harold Innes’s Staples Approach theory
Canadian political culture: democracy, power, equality, and democratic governance through a liberal democratic lens
Public policy influenced by english and french regions (regionalism)
Two distinct political cultures
“Rights, civil liberties, competitive elections, fair elections, the rule of law, limited government are all some of the key characteristics to which many Canadians relate”
Political culture as diverse and divided
Losing trust and confidence in how governments rule
Diminished sense of political efficacy
Universal canadian political culture: rule of law, deference to authority, acceptance of government interventions, tolerance of political and social differences
Constitutions and CCRF performs functions such as, “focusing on identity, acting as a symbol of unity and continuity, rhetorical expression of values and principles deemed to be shared by all citizens and more importantly, it establishes rules that relate to the operation of a political system”
Rules: representation and power,
Written and formal document
Established dominion of Canada (BNA act of 1867)
Base document
CA of 1982 (includes CCRF)
Increased rights and freedoms
Rights solidified in CCRF (the following is all copied)
Fundamental Freedoms
These are freedoms such as freedom of religion, freedom of thought, belief, opinion, freedom of expression and freedom of association or peaceful assembly.
Democratic and Mobility rights
Section 3 of the Charter details the right of every citizen to vote in federal and provincial elections as well as the right to be qualified to become a member of the federal and provincial legislature (Greene, 1989).
Mobility RIghts
This right enables Canadians to move from one province to another in order to seek residency and employment.
Legal Rights
These sections specifically look at the rights of criminals, deportation clauses, unreasonable search and seizure and federal highway violations (Greene, 1989). Section 7, particularly, is a general guarantee of procedural rights and states that a person has the right to "life liberty and security of the person.".
Equality Rights
This section states that every individual is equal before the law and should, therefore, be protected without discrimination. It also protects affirmative action programs.
Language Rights
These sections deal with the protection and constitutional guarantees of both the French and English languages. For example, the right to use either official language in parliamentary debates and court proceedings, as well as the official bilingual status of provinces and Canada.
Minority Language Education Right
Based on specific conditions (mother tongue clause, Canada clause and siblings clause), section 23 guarantees that children can receive their school education in either English or French in any province. In this case, Quebec objected to the idea that new immigrants had the option of being educated in English while living in Quebec. They feared this would erode the quality and availability of the French language in Quebec.
Proximate: Parliamentary System
Three branches: executive, the legislature, and the judicial systems
Provide a more direct influence on policy-making process
Can also be categorized into the political executive and administration
Crown: the composite symbols of the institutions of the state
May be involved in court proceedings and other duties
Eg. certain government properties may be held in the name of the crown
Administration: government departments
Assists the executive branch in handling policy and decision making processes
Departments that provide services (health, education, social welfare, justice, etc.)
Prime minister's office and the privy council ave special responsibility to support the PM, the cabinet and the ministry
The executive: the head of state and the head of government
Head of government: the PM of Canada
One of the most powerful leaders in the world
Video notes (https://youtu.be/lpov6kLjWAY)
With JDM Stewart about his book being prime minister
An all consuming job
Travel around the world
Requires patience
Quite a burden
Important to get out of the ottawa bubble
Categories: the loners, the charmers
Charmers: know who to cultivate relationships
Loners: work more solitary
Stephen harper the only one not interviewed
Some worked many hours; early in the morning to late in the night
Going through briefing books
The PM used to read and respond to letters from citizens
PM as celebrities now
People used to be able to walk around with no security like ordinary citizens
Celebritization has put them under far more scrutiny
PM as a risk
Threatening John Chretian
Assanation attempt
Hard to get out of the security bubble
Why does golf always come up in political conversation tf
PM are often seen as inhuman
Sometime mutual
Non partisan approach to viewing the office
Mulraney family raised their children in sussex drive
Sussex drive is not actually a gem
Deteriorated into a dump
Harrington lake
The PM country retreat
Escape from ottawa
Head of state: the GG (technically the head of state is the king)
Powers are limited in comparison to the PM
Strong ties to the british
Monarch is the head of state but not physically present in canada, hence why GG is appointed to represent the monarch
The supreme authority of the state is part of what they call the sovereign
Despite governing in the name of the crown, the monarch and crowns authority is limited
Crowns power comes from statute law, does retain some power in common law
The legislature: main law-making body; “multi-member representative body which considers public issues,”
Bicameral: upper house (senate) and lower house (house of commons)
Equal legislative power
Bills must be passed through both houses
Debate on the validity of the upper house
Appointed
Based on territory and class
Not a representation by the people
House of Commons: the lower house with 338 members elected by the people
First Past the Post Electoral system
Ruling party, opposition, back benchers, and executive
Senate: upper house consisting of 105 senators appointed by GG on the advice of the PM
Equal representation
Represents country’s interests not party interest
How a bill is passed: goes through both houses (the following is copied)
Pre-Parliamentary stage
A bill is created when a policy proposal is submitted to Cabinet and is approved by the Department of Justice, cabinet committee and has the Prime Minister's signature. This proposal is known as the draft bill. Once it comes to the House of Commons, the first reading occurs.
First Reading
The first reading of a bill is presented to the House of Commons, where it undergoes a parliamentary process (Sometimes the bill is presented first in the Senate; however, this happens on very rare occasions). The first reading means that the bill is presented for the first time to the House of Commons members. Parliamentary members do not vote on the Bill at this time.
Second Reading
The second reading motion is usually proposed by the sponsoring minister and allows for a debate on the principles of the bill. The opposition has the opportunity to debate the bill and prove its inadequacy at this point.
Third Reading
Third reading can sometimes commence right after the report stage with the notion that the bill will be read a third time and passed in the House of Commons.
Senate Stage
After the bill has been through the House of Commons, the process starts over again in the Senate. The Senate generally provides a much smoother route than the House of Commons, and sometimes takes less time to go through than the House of Commons. After consideration by the Senate, it is then reported as approved or rejected. If the bill is rejected (a rare occurrence), the entire bill has to go through the whole process again. Sometimes, certain bills (except for money bills) can start its process in the Senate, and if this is the case, it will go through the same process for the second time in the House of Commons.
Royal assent
When a bill is passed in both the House of Commons and the Senate, it reaches the final stages known as the Royal Assent. In this final stage, the Governor General puts their seal of approval on the bill. The bill then officially becomes law and is bound by the government.
The judiciary: interprets the laws implemented by the legislatures
Court system and the constitution
Hierarchal
SCC
9 judges
3 from civil law (QC)
Don't have to retire until 75
Highest court
Decisions are binding
Deal with appeals
Questions from the federal govt
Canada has both civil law and common law tradition
Civil law: practiced in Quebec (handed down by France)
Common law: english law
Courts are based on the principle of stare decisis
established legal precedents that guide current judgments
Marland & Wesley notes
Chapter 1: Review of Core Concepts
Understanding Public Servants
Public servants, also referred to as civil servants or bureaucrats, are nonpartisan workers within the core public service, including government departments, Crown corporations, and agencies. They play a key role in shaping Canadian lives through their choices and actions.
The responsibilities of public servants encompass maintaining safety standards through building codes, overseeing food and medicine quality, and administering policies affecting transportation, public services, and traffic regulations.
Indirect interactions with the government are common for Canadians, who may not recognize how these engage with public services in their daily lives.
Importance of Familiarity with Core Concepts
Public servants must understand the foundational principles guiding politics and governance in Canada, focusing on the roles and responsibilities that define their work in a democratic context.
This chapter summarizes vital concepts of democratic governance and public administration, providing an overview relevant to both new and experienced public servants.
Core Principles of Canadian Democracy
The essence of democracy is that governance authority comes from the governed, leading to a system where not all citizens’ interests can be aligned, often resulting in political discontent.
Politicians face the challenge of balancing short-term pressures with long-term implications, while public criticism serves as a vital expression of a free society.
The importance of constant public engagement and lobbying demonstrates the complex nature of Canadian governance. Public resources and political decisions are influenced by myriad demands from various interest groups.
The Role of Public Servants in Policy Making
Public servants do not make policy decisions; instead, they provide input and implement directives decided by elected officials. The relationship between political staff and public servants is crucial, as it influences public policy processes.
Policy phases include idea generation, public debate, development, implementation, and evaluation, with public servants playing a foundational role in each phase while adhering to a structured bureaucratic hierarchy.
The Structure of Canadian Government
The Canadian constitution serves as the bedrock for political authority, outlining the distribution of power among various governmental levels.
Canada operates under a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy, encompassing federal, provincial, and territorial governments that maintain distinct powers.
The intricacies of local governance also play into how policies are enacted at various levels, illustrating the complex governmental fabric of Canada.
Chapter 2: The Public Sector Bargain
Overview of the Public Sector Bargain
The public sector bargain concept asserts that public servants provide impartial services in exchange for job security and competitive compensation.
The distinction between public servants and political personnel highlights a challenging dynamic, where differing philosophies can cause friction within the governance structure.
Tensions Between Politics and Administration
Historical perspectives from theorists such as Max Weber and Woodrow Wilson emphasize the necessity for bureaucratic efficiency while separating administrative actions from political motivations.
Political staff, often motivated by immediate results and public accountability, can clash with public servants’ more measured and detailed approaches to policy implementation.
Challenges and Modern Developments
Concerns arise regarding public servants’ roles facing increased political pressures that blur lines of accountability and traditional neutrality.
Emerging public service management models like New Public Management reflect shifts towards efficiency, yet raise questions about bureaucratic impartiality.
The roles of political staff and consultations with public servants have evolved, affecting the balance of power and leading to discussions on their politically charged environments.
Guiding Principles for Public Servants
Public servants are encouraged to provide fearless advice to their superiors while loyally implementing directives, as institutional integrity relies on this balance.
Clarity in communication, particularly through tools like briefing notes, is essential for ensuring decision-makers are provided with accurate and actionable information.
The ongoing challenge lies in balancing political imperatives with the ethical standards of public service, calling for public servants to be informed, engaged, and proactive in sustaining democratic norms.
Key concepts
Public servant: nonpartisan workers in the government, typically found in government departments, crown corporations, and agencies
Core principles of Canadian government: the d=foundation of a democratic system, involving the authority derived from the consent of the governed, accountability, and the protection of minority rights
Public policy cycle: the process of developing, implementing, and evaluating policies that address public problems
Public service bargain: the implicit agreement that public servants offer impartial service and loyalty to the government in exchange for job security and fair compensation
Political acumen: the ability to navigate the political landscape effectively, understanding power dynamics and being able to interact diplomatically with various stakeholders
Merit principle: the standard that public servants are hired based on their qualifications and competencies through a fair and transparent selection process
Accountability: the obligation of public servants and ministers to report on their decisions and actions, being responsible for their performance
Executive branch: the branch of government responsible for implementing and enforcing laws, typically led by the prime minister of premier
Cabinet solidarity: the principle that all cabinet members must publicly support decisions made by the cabinet, regardless of personal opinions
Ethics of public service: the standards of behavior expected of public servants, including integrity, respect, and accountability
New political governance (NPG): a model that describes the increasing politicization of public administration, where public servants are more involved in partisan politics
Majority government: a situation where the governing party holds more than half the seats in the legislature, allowing it to control legislation with minimal opposition
Minority government: a situation in which the governing party does not hold a majority of seats, requiring collaboration or negotiation with opposition parties to pass legislation
Indigenous awareness training: mandatory training programs designed to educate public servants on indigenous peoples rights, histories and current issues
Privilege of loyalty in public service: the expectation that public servants remain loyal to the government of the day and implement its directives faithfully
Job titles of public servants: roles such as airport response specialist, economic development analyst, public outreach education officer, which illustrate the variety of positions in the public sector
Constitution acts: documents that define the distribution of powers and responsibilities among different levels of government in Canada
Crown corporations: government-owned entities that operate on a commercial basis, providing services and goods in the public interest
Public policy: the decisions and actions taken by governments to address societal issues and the allocation of resources
Political staff: partisan appointees who work closely with elected officials, providing political advice and assistance
Federalism: a system of government where power is divided between a central authority and various regional authorities
Operationalizing the government agenda: the process of translating policy decisions into actionable steps that public servants carry out.
Craft & Howlett notes
Abstract
The article discusses policy formulation and governance shifts, particularly focusing on the role of policy advisory systems.
Traditional models of policy influence are critiqued, emphasizing the content of policy advice over mere location.
The article suggests a revised approach for understanding advisory systems and proposes hypotheses for future research.
Introduction
Policy advice and its sources are critical topics in public administration studies, showing extensive scholarly interest.
Existing research often presents findings in specific contexts, but systematic thinking about advisory systems remains underdeveloped.
The notion of "policy advisory system" is introduced, connecting various advisory actors contributing to policy-making.
Key Concepts in Policy Advice
Past examinations often isolated individual policy advisory actors instead of appreciating their interconnections.
Recent studies demonstrate diverse advisory sources in different countries, prompting a reevaluation of how these systems function.
Non-governmental components of advisory systems, such as think tanks and consultants, are identified as significant players.
Conceptual Problems in Policy Advice
A conceptual challenge arises from understanding influence patterns among advisory system actors.
Traditional locational models of policy advice often tie influence levels to advisors' positions inside or outside of government.
The limitations of these models are highlighted, particularly the need to address the content of the advice provided.
Locational Models of Policy Advice
Existing models categorize advisors based on their proximity to decision-makers, creating distinctions between insiders and outsiders.
Three categories emerge: proximate decision-makers (policy consumers), knowledge producers (academic and research institutions), and brokers (those facilitating the exchange of information).
The emphasis here is on identifying and classifying the various roles within these advisory systems.
Shifts in Governance Practices
A shift from traditional hierarchical models of policy advice toward a more polycentric and pluralized approach is evident,
This change reflects a movement from the model of "speaking truth to power" to "sharing truths with multiple actors."
Decision-makers are now at the center of a complex web that includes numerous advisory sources, both governmental and non-governmental.
Operationalizing Content in Policy Advice
The discussion around content dimension begins, suggesting that content is as critical as location in assessing advisory systems.
Early dichotomies, such as technical versus political advice, have obscured the more integrated role of advisors today.
The evolving landscape now includes a myriad of advisory inputs from diverse sources, emphasizing the importance of understanding these inputs.
Moving Beyond Dichotomies
Addressing the traditional dichotomy of technical versus political content, it is emphasized that both types of advice are needed.
Contemporary advisory roles now blend technical knowledge with political viewpoints, creating a richer advisory environment.
Internal and external advisors collectively contribute to shaping public policy, reducing the historical monopoly of bureaucratic insiders.
Conclusion
Policy advisory systems today are complex and involve multiple sources that contribute to policy formation.
Recognizing the importance of both location and content allows for a better understanding of contemporary policy advice frameworks.
The article concludes by emphasizing the need for further research and development of models that encapsulate the evolving dynamics of policy advisory systems.
Key concepts
Policy advisory system: an interlocking set of actors providing information, knowledge, and recommendations for action to policy makers
Polycentrism: the presence of multiple overlapping sources of authority in governance arrangements
Locational models: models that associate the level of influence of advisors with their proximity to decision-makers.
Content dimension: the substantive nature of policy advice, as opposed to the locational aspect of where the advice is sourced
Technical advice: objective, analytical recommendations provided to decision-makers, often grounded in empirical data.
Political advice: value-based recommendations influenced by ideological considerations and partisan perspectives
Horizontal governance: a governance model emphasizing collaboration and interaction among various actors rather than strict hierarchical control
Governance shifts: changes in the dynamics of decision-making authority and the roles of advisors within policy formulation processes
Evidence-based policy making: the practice of making policy decision based on the best available evidence, rather than political or ideological motivations
Expert advice: guidance offered by knowledgeable individuals or organizations, often derived from specialized knowledge or experience in a given field
Policy influence: the capacity of advisors to sway decision-makers formulations through the content and nature of the advice they provide
Chapter 2 notes:
Actions typically precede policies
Governments act first then develop justifications for their actions (public policy)
Policy is to complex for a one size fits all explanation
What happens inside the state system (“black box” of easton's systems model) and the societal factors that influence the behavior of our policy makers
Domestic and foreign policies
Traditional distinctions between state and societal influences on policy are often ineffective.
Governmentalization of society (leon dion)/ the embedded state (alan cairns)
Undermines the usefulness of an analytical framework premises on the distinction between state and societal influences on policy
Globalization and internationalization expose domestic policies to external forces.
Understanding policy-making requires integrating external and domestic influences.
A flexible framework is needed to analyze policy factors without rigid assumptions.
Proximate influences: the cabinet, the legislature, courts, media system, public opinion, political parties, interest groups, social movements
Contextual influences: political culture, the constitution, federalism, characteristics of the economy and society, globalization
Political culture: “the dominant and relatively durable beliefs and values concerning political life that characterize a society”
Things that are taken for granted: equality, respect of authority
Shared by the vast pop
Important for political stability
How many political cultures are there in Canada? 1? 2? 3?
1 political culture description:
Often described in comparison to the US
Counterrevolutionary
Deferential toward authority
More collectivist
More caring and compassionate
More tolerant of hierarchical social distinctions
2 political culture description:
French and English
Fragment theory of Louis Hartz
English speaking Canada as liberal society
Tory touches
French speaking Canada as pre-liberal feudal society whose democratization and liberalization were held back by its feudal past
Multiple political culture descriptions
Based on regions and their history
Demographic and economic characteristics
10 (each province)?
Commonly said to be 4-5
Ontario, Quebec, the West, and Atlantic Canada
Sometimes NFLD as separate
Two culture image tends to be most important
Affects policy making
Protecting distinctive traditions of the french
Generates resentment in western canada
Ignore indigenous peoples
Western alienation
Feels excluded from the image of Canada, central canadian media, and intellectual elites whose centers of gravity are toronto and montreal
All regions share many fundamental values and beliefs
Liberal democratic
Respect for individual freedom, equality of rights, limited government, and belief in the market economy
“Laurentian consensus” (John Ibbitson)
“The direction of this country was determined by the political, academic, cultural, media, and business elites in Toronto, Ottawa, Montréal and other cities along the St. Lawrence River or its watershed.”
Universal public health care, public education, the canadian pension plan, and national standards for things like welfare
Statist political tradition
Strong political executive and a pop that tends to be deferential to those in power
BNA act
Confederation institutions and political elite expectations shaped Canadian politics.
The Sovereign Parliament included both the people and the Crown, with authority exercised by the prime minister and cabinet.
Few legislative checks existed on the prime minister and cabinet's powers.
Parliamentary sovereignty fostered a culture of nominal participation but significant deference to political power.
The British Crown and Constitution discouraged unsanctioned political activity.
Canada's political culture became less participatory due to parliamentary institutions promoting a top-down governance model.
Resnick's view aligns with historical evidence of limited participatory politics in Canada.
Populist movements have emerged, notably in Western Canada and Ontario, but face resistance from parliamentary power centralization.
Political power remains concentrated in the hands of the prime minister, premiers, and cabinet.
Federal–provincial relations reflect a tradition of elite deal-making.
Referendums or constituent assemblies are often dismissed as "un-Canadian."
The Canadian state actively organizes national culture and civic consciousness, partly as a defense against American cultural influence.
State-led nationalism may suppress civil society efforts and foster dependence on government-driven civic organization.
The statist political tradition is defended by left-leaning critics for supporting social services and welfare.
In the 1990s, governments faced tension between cutting social spending and upholding values of equality and government responsibility.
Federal Liberal and provincial Conservative governments aggressively cut spending, including social programs, during this period.
To justify cuts, governments emphasized values such as self-reliance, limited government, and traditional family values.
Canadian cultural policy focuses on language and multiculturalism, rooted in the B&B Commission's report.
"Multiculturalism within a bilingual framework" seeks to balance French-English tensions and ethnolinguistic group demands.
Federal policy has prioritized the bilingual framework over multiculturalism in funding and initiatives.
Culture: the identity made up of what a person is born with or acquires at birth (Harold R. Isaacs)
Language, religion, and the way of perseiving and evaluating experience that are the product of the groups history
Exclusionary
Ethnic identities persist despite globalizing pressures from modern technology, urbanization, and communication.
A resurgence of ethnic attachments is linked to dissatisfaction with the uniformity of modern societies.
Official recognition of a group's language and cultural teaching provides both material and symbolic benefits.
Public institutions distribute not only resources but also symbols of recognition and societal roles.
Ethnocultural groups may perceive inadequacy in symbolic representation, feeling disadvantaged compared to others.
State actions can reinforce group self-esteem by appointing representatives or integrating traditions into public events.
Symbolic recognition of minority groups has psychological significance but risks degenerating into tokenism.
Increased representation in public life does not necessarily reduce barriers to full societal or economic participation.
Indigenous cultural symbolism in state functions contrasts with persistent exclusion from economic benefits and unresolved land/self-governance issues.
Celebrations like Canada150 highlighted tensions, with protests (#Resistance150) framing it as a colonization commemoration.
Official multiculturalism (1971) addressed ethnic organizations' concerns about being marginalized under a "two nations" vision.
The policy symbolically countered Quebec nationalist claims while recognizing non-French, non-British cultures.
Initial studies showed limited public awareness or support for the policy, with ethnic organizations being primary beneficiaries through status and funding.
Multicultural program spending in 2018–19 totaled $4.7 million, doubling the previous year but only 0.1% of federal departmental spending.
Programs funded include support for ethnocultural organizations, multicultural events, immigrant language instruction, heritage language programs, ethnic studies, and arts communities.
A $9 million commitment over three years addressed Black Canadian youth issues, funding 51 projects and 291 diversity events.
Cabinet, not independent agencies, approves grants, creating potential for partisan influence.
Funding systems favor well-established, organized ethnic groups with prior funding experience.
Recent funding increases shifted focus toward combating racism rather than promoting individual cultural groups.
Multiculturalism reflects Canada's ethnically diverse society, with increasing non-British, non-French populations since post-WWII immigration.
Population with non-European origins has significantly grown, with European immigrants dropping from 79.7% in 1971 to 27.7% in 2016.
Nearly half of recent immigrants (48.1% in 2016) now come from Asia.
The visible minority population has markedly increased due to changing immigration patterns.
Government policies emphasize eliminating racial discrimination in response to interracial tensions and studies on widespread racism.
Racial discrimination policies aim to provide material and symbolic benefits, focusing on equal societal and economic participation for visible minorities.
Unlike cultural expression in multiculturalism, these policies target barriers in the private sector, including employment and accommodation.
Human rights legislation addresses discrimination after incidents occur, without directly confronting underlying racist attitudes.
Media campaigns promoting racial harmony are seen as symbolic politics with limited impact.
Affirmative action policies increase visible minority representation in public service, initially through targets and incentives rather than quotas.
The Employment Equity Act mandates equitable working conditions in federally regulated sectors, requiring accommodations for designated groups.
The RCMP's diversity mandate focuses on gender parity and better representation of women, Indigenous Peoples, and minority groups in leadership roles.
Progress is measured using labour market availability, evaluating the proportion of diverse applicants versus hires.
2016–17 hiring data:
Women made up 16% of applicants and 21% of hires.
Visible minorities were 11% of applicants and 14% of hires.
Indigenous Peoples were 15% of applicants but only 9% of hires.
Despite higher success rates for women and minorities, the RCMP remains predominantly white and male.
Federal contractors, including colleges and private companies, are required to implement affirmative action and track workforce diversity under the Federal Contractors Program.
The Constitution: blends elements from British and American systems, reflecting its colonial history and geographical/sociological links to the U.S.
From Britain, Canada adopted parliamentary government and conventions for executive, legislative, and judicial relations.
Canada's federalism is inspired by the U.S., but it includes centralizing provisions intended by the founders to create a more centralized form of federalism.
A constitution is the fundamental law, regulating relations among government branches and between government and citizens.
Canada's Constitution consists of written documents (Constitution Act, 1867 and 1982) and unwritten conventions.
Unwritten conventions govern internal state relations and federal-provincial relations, inherited from British parliamentary practices.
Important conventions
Those pertaining to the prime minister and the cabinet
Those pertaining to the relationship btwn the govt and the legislature
Responsible government
Those pertaining to the relationship between the crown, represented in Canada by the GG, and the government
Those pertaining to relations between the government and the bureaucracy
Those pertaining to the internal operations of parliament
Federalism:
Canada’s British parliamentary system provides no guidance on federal-provincial relations, so the written Constitution and evolving practices shape the responsibilities of each level of government.
Federalism doesn't inherently complicate policy-making, but regional divisions in unitary states, like France and Great Britain, are addressed through national political institutions.
Federalism can reinforce regional divisions, as it allows regional governments to assert more control over their societies and economies.
Political elites at federal and provincial levels strive to increase control over resources, authority, and citizen support for their respective organizations.
Federal-provincial relations are regulated by the Constitution and unwritten conventions, with overlapping jurisdictions and shared revenue sources.
Provincial assertiveness and decentralized rulings have undermined the centralized intent of Canada's federal structure.
Constitutional conventions play a key role in financial relations, intergovernmental negotiations, and foreign policy.
The federal government transfers significant funds to provinces for social policy, and negotiations are guided by conventions, such as annual meetings between the prime minister and premiers.
Executive federalism describes the continuous process of consultation and bargaining between federal and provincial executives, with little legislative involvement unless ratifying agreements.
Canada's Constitution has two main impacts on policy-making:
It concentrates power in the cabinet, with policy decisions typically passing through it, making the cabinet the focal point for those influencing policy.
It amplifies regional divisions, with provinces becoming key spokespeople for regionally based interests, leading to jurisdictional conflicts.
The 1982 reform with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms democratized the Constitution, shifting focus to the rights of individuals and groups, challenging the old "governments' constitution."
Despite the Charter’s democratizing effects, the 1992 Charlottetown Accord showed that the process remained elitist, as broad consultations didn't include direct popular consent or fully democratize policy-making.
Charter politics encouraged the rise of "Court Party" interest groups that use courts and media to influence policy, but this shift did not empower ordinary citizens, instead creating a new elite.
The shift to polyarchy (rule by multiple elites) rather than populist democracy was highlighted in the Charlottetown Accord, where consent was based on group representation, not direct citizen involvement.
French language protection in Canada has been a policy issue since before Confederation, due to over one-fifth of the population being francophone, mainly in Quebec.
Social and economic characteristics influence the political agenda, but not every important issue automatically makes it to the agenda.
Policy issues and identities require definition, learning, and mobilization, with certain issues being more likely to emerge based on societal characteristics.
Canadian politics has three main axes:
Relations between French- and English-speaking communities
The Canada–U.S. relationship
Regional dimensions, reflecting economic diversity and disparities.
Indigenous concerns have become an additional axis, impacting issues like land use, health, education, energy, and criminal justice.
Language policy
Quebec's "Quiet Revolution" in the 1960s marked a shift in language and cultural policy, including reforms in education and governance, moving away from traditional ideologies.
The federal government’s response, starting with the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, led to the adoption of a bilingualism policy to address Quebec nationalism and expand career opportunities for francophones.
Pierre Trudeau’s federalist philosophy emphasized individual language rights, transforming Canada's symbolic identity and instituting the Official Languages Act (1969), later revised in 1988 and 2005.
The Official Languages Act aimed to ensure equality for English and French in federal institutions, promote minority language communities, and set responsibilities for federal institutions regarding language.
Raymond Théberge (2018-19) called for modernization of the Act to address technological advances and clarify its application to social media.
The Act aimed to address francophone underrepresentation in federal jobs, especially in managerial, scientific, and technical roles, by designating positions as bilingual and offering language training.
By 1985, a majority of bilingual positions in the federal service were filled by francophones, and francophones made up a larger share of federal employees compared to their population size.
Despite improvements in bilingual representation, English still dominates as the working language in most federal departments, even in the National Capital Region.
Federal support also extended to court challenges defending language rights and to educational initiatives like French immersion programs.
French immersion schools grew, with over 449,000 students enrolled by 2017, but challenges remain, including provinces bearing the cost of bilingualism administration.
Ontario's 2018 provincial government cuts, including withdrawal of funding for a French-language university and elimination of the French Language Services Commissioner, were seen as setbacks for bilingualism.
Public opinion supports bilingualism, with many believing it improves job prospects, but only about 17.9% of Canadians are bilingual, and immersion graduates often retain "receptive" bilingualism rather than active use of both languages.
Late 19th century: Canada was a dependent society with strong ties to the British economic system.
20th century shift: Canada moved into the economic and cultural orbit of the United States, driven by global economic changes.
Decline of British economic influence and rise of U.S. economic power led to a transformation in Canada's dependence.
Shift from transatlantic dependence (export of resources and import of debt capital) to continental dependence (export of resources to the U.S. and integration of Canadian industry into the U.S. economy).
Economic and political power in Canada transformed, with a decline in the influence of financial and railway interests and an increase in American-owned industrial subsidiaries.
Canada gained political sovereignty from Britain, but its economic integration with the U.S. limited its independent public policy.
Key forms of economic ties to the U.S. include trade, investment, capital markets, and treaties, which influence Canadian public policy.
Investment:
Foreign ownership in the Canadian economy is significant, with about half of foreign ownership coming from the U.S.
41% of assets in Canada’s non-financial corporations are foreign-owned, but this proportion has been declining.
Key sectors under foreign control: automobile industry, petroleum, petrochemicals, and food processing.
Foreign ownership accounts for 48% of operating revenue in Canada.
Roots of American investment date back to the National Policy of 1879, encouraging American companies to set up subsidiaries (branch plants) in Canada to bypass high tariffs.
By 1913, about 450 U.S.-owned subsidiaries were established in Canada.
Share of Asian ownership has increased from 7.6% in 2007 to 12.3% in 2017.
Debate over benefits and costs of foreign ownership, particularly from the U.S., which has increased Canada’s economic integration with the U.S.
High foreign ownership makes Canada more vulnerable to U.S. investment policies.
Example of vulnerability: 1990s Helms–Burton Act, which prevented U.S. subsidiaries from doing business with Cuba, causing conflict with Canada, a major investor in Cuba.
Canada has historically been a net importer of investment capital but has increased foreign investments, especially in the U.S.
By 2018, Canadian foreign direct investment abroad was greater than foreign direct investment in Canada.
Globalization has led to closer economic ties with the U.S., giving the U.S. more influence over Canadian policies in investment disputes.
Capital Markets:
Canadian companies, governments, and agencies borrow significant amounts of money, much of it from foreign investors.
Approximately one-fifth of Ottawa’s $723 billion in debt is owed to non-Canadians, with most of the debt owed to Americans.
Provincial governments and agencies (e.g., Hydro One, Hydro-Québec) are also heavily indebted to foreign investors.
Foreign investors' reactions and Canada's creditworthiness are closely watched, influencing Canadian politics.
The 1995 Quebec referendum raised concerns about how Quebec’s potential separation would affect foreign investment and credit ratings.
Economic ties with the U.S. limit Canada's policy-making flexibility, especially regarding debt and credit ratings.
The Canadian dollar strengthens when the U.S. dollar weakens (e.g., 2002 and 2006), and since 2012, the Canadian dollar has been declining relative to the U.S. dollar, boosting exports.
Trade uncertainties, such as the lack of a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and tariffs imposed on Canadian aluminum and steel by the U.S., negatively impacted Canada’s economy.
The 2018 U.S. tariffs on Canadian aluminum (10%) and steel (25%) raised prices, and 34% of exporters reported being negatively affected, raising prices or seeking new suppliers.
Treaties:
Canada and the U.S. share deep trade, investment, and borrowing ties, formalized through treaties.
The Reciprocity Treaty (1854–66) and the abrogation of this treaty helped catalyze Canada's Confederation.
Sectoral free trade existed before the Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in 1989, including defense products and automobiles (Auto Pact of 1965).
Both Canada and the U.S. were original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 eliminated most trade barriers, creating the largest free trade region.
NAFTA's benefits: Nearly $1.1 trillion for all three countries by 2017, but criticized by Donald Trump, leading to renegotiation in 2018, resulting in the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA) or Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement (CUSMA).
USMCA impact: Preliminary analysis suggests benefits for the U.S., but potential reduction in Canada's GDP by 0.4%, costing $10 billion in economic welfare.
Canada is also involved in multilateral trade agreements, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), which is less restrictive than USMCA, balancing Canadian-American trade relations.
Canada counters its U.S. dependence by pursuing agreements like the Canada–European Union Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), offering better access to European markets.
Canada's economic dependence on the U.S. is mirrored in military ties, formalized by treaties like the Ogdensburg Agreement (1940), Hyde Park Declaration (1941), and participation in NATO and North American Air Defense Command.
Canadian nationalism has sought military independence, but Canada’s geographic position and economic dependence on the U.S. make military non-alignment unrealistic.
Regionalism and Provincialism:
Provincial governments in Canada often claim to represent regionally distinct societies, with Quebec particularly emphasizing the need for provincial governments to protect regional interests due to their minority status in federal Parliament.
Despite variations in economic activities among provinces, decentralizing pressures in Canada are stronger than in the U.S., partly due to the absence of national institutions in Canada that could express regional demands.
The Canadian Constitution provides provinces with significant powers, such as taxation, borrowing, and jurisdiction over social policy, leading to decentralized federalism.
Regional economic disparities, such as the concentration of corporate head offices in Ontario and Quebec, combine with weak national structures for regional interest representation, leading to fragmentation in policy-making.
Historically, provincial governments, like Ontario under Oliver Mowat, have resisted federal centralism, and this tradition continues with the assertion of provincial powers.
The federal-provincial financial relationship has evolved, with provinces now collecting more tax revenues than the federal government, although some provinces remain dependent on federal transfers.
Provincial government spending has increased, along with the size of provincial bureaucracies, which are driven by regional interests and give political expression to local differences in culture, demographics, and economic structure.
Globalization:
Canada's economy has long been dependent on external markets, particularly through the exploitation and export of natural resources (e.g., fish, fur, timber, wheat) to international markets.
Despite efforts, including Sir John A. Macdonald’s National Policy (1879), to reduce this dependence, Canada continued to rely on external trade, with a hope of self-sufficiency.
Economic nationalism, particularly from the 1950s to the 1980s, focused on limiting U.S. influence and promoting domestic capital.
With globalization, the focus shifted to managing economic interdependence, especially with the U.S., as a central issue in Canadian public life.
The Chrysler Voyager exemplifies economic globalization, with parts sourced globally and assembly in Canada, complicating the notion of a "Canadian product."
All Canadian provinces (except PEI) do more business with foreign markets than within Canada, highlighting Canada's deep international trade ties.
Canada's economic globalization has primarily meant closer ties with the U.S., with 73% of Canadian exports going to the U.S. and the U.S. accounting for 46% of Canada’s imports.
The Canada-U.S. trade relationship is asymmetrical, with Canada’s interests often more impacted by trade disputes than the U.S.'s.
Canada is the largest source of energy imports for the U.S., but Canada's dependency on the U.S. economy limits its negotiating power in trade disputes.
A hypothetical halt to petroleum exports from Canada or automotive exports would significantly harm Canada, but have a relatively minor effect on the U.S. economy.
The imbalance in the trade relationship contributed to the adoption of free trade agreements, including the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (1989) and NAFTA, aimed at reducing reliance on U.S. protectionism.
The Macdonald Commission in the 1980s recommended closer economic integration with the U.S., influencing Canadian policy toward free trade.
The trade dispute mechanisms in the free trade agreements do not eliminate trade politics, and the Trump administration's policies (e.g., tariffs, "Buy American" orders) have put Canada in a challenging position.
NAFTA, later renegotiated under Trump, still plays a key role in regulating trade between Canada, the U.S., and Mexico.
Public opinion and Canada-US economic relations:
Canadian nationalism has weakened in recent decades, with increased economic integration and cultural Americanization.
Nationalists face challenges, such as the ineffective promotion of Canadian cultural alternatives and the ongoing "brain drain."
Public opinion polls show less support for nationalist ideals and more acceptance of closer ties with the U.S.
A 1993 Ipsos Reid poll showed one-third of Canadians opposed NAFTA; by 2016, opposition had dropped to 22%.
In 2017, 47% of Canadians saw NAFTA as beneficial, but only 21% of Americans agreed with the benefit of NAFTA.
Canadian nationalism, symbolized by the “state or the United States” slogan, now resonates weakly, especially outside academia and specific sectors.
The NDP, the only avowedly nationalist political party, saw declining support in the 1990s, with a resurgence after shifting focus to domestic issues like healthcare.
The NDP's popularity fell in 2015, possibly due to leadership preferences over trade policies.
The rise of high-tech, IT, and finance sectors in Canada has led to greater support for trade liberalization.
Globalization has increasingly integrated Canada into the U.S. sphere, with Canadians more accepting of this reality, including a majority of NDP voters supporting the new CUSMA trade deal.
Globalization has also impacted Canadian policymaking, with domestic issues now discussed in a transnational context.
Indigenous rights have gained international attention, and leaders have sought global involvement in disputes, notably through the UN.
Under the Harper government, Canada objected to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, but the Trudeau government shifted to full support.
The internationalization of policy discourse is widespread, influencing various issues like fur trapping, forestry, education, trade, national unity, and environmental regulation.
International norms and standards, particularly in trade and investment, shape Canadian domestic policy-making, as seen in agreements like FTA, NAFTA, and WTO rules.
Canada actively participates in international policy development, with recent free trade talks including demands for tougher labor, environmental standards, and rights for Indigenous peoples and gender.
Although internationalization challenges national sovereignty, the concept is not dead, and governments still retain some policy-making independence.
Policy issues are increasingly framed without regard to national borders, with external ideas and interests influencing domestic policies.
A study by Mark Pickup shows that trade liberalization has not entirely subordinated political or regional factors in government spending, as provincial transfers to individuals have increased despite trade openness.
Interest groups, once national, are now seeking international alliances and support.
Example: Three Canadian groups presented a case to the UN in 1995, arguing Canada's repeal of the Canada Assistance Plan violated human rights.
Many groups, especially environmental, Indigenous, human rights, women's, and anti-poverty, use international platforms to pressure the Canadian government.
The line between foreign and domestic policy-making has blurred, expanding Canada's foreign policy to include human rights, the environment, social policy, and more.
Global Affairs Canada's role has broadened but also been limited in technical areas like agriculture and telecommunications, where other departments hold expertise.
The shift in foreign affairs capacity from provinces to the federal government has occurred, but provinces still influence foreign policy on issues within their jurisdiction, such as the environment and social policy.
The use of policy instruments has evolved: spending instruments and subsidies are reduced due to trade agreements and foreign pressure, while regulation has increased.
Globalization affects policy-making by integrating non-governmental organizations into the process, sometimes turning them into policy instruments.
Key Terms
affirmative action: An employment policy that uses targets, incentives, or mandatory quotas to increase the representation of a designated group or groups, such as women, Indigenous Peoples, and visible minorities.
constitution: The formal establishment of a state that describes the roles and responsibilities of the regime to its citizens.
contextual influences: Factors that constitute the background of policy-making.
conventions: Customary rules and traditional practices pertaining to the powers of and relations between parts of the state system.
embedded state: When the governing capacity of the state is complicated by international pressures and influences.
executive federalism: A continuous and multi-level process of consultation and bargaining between policy-makers representing the federal government and those who represent the provinces that generally does not include elected representatives of opposition parties.
fragment theory: Developed by Louis Hartz, it characterizes English-speaking Canada as a liberal society with Tory “touches” and French-speaking Canada as a pre-liberal feudal society whose democratization and liberalization were delayed by its feudal past.
political culture: The dominant and relatively durable beliefs and values about political life that characterize a society.
proximate influences: The machinery of government, political parties, interest groups, and so on whose impact on policy is more direct than is the case with contextual influences.
responsible government: A constitutional convention according to which a government must have the support of a majority of the members of the legislature to govern. In other words, the executive branch of government is “responsible” to the legislative branch.
