Key sociologists & their approaches

• Douglas found that w/c parents put less value on education, so lower levels of educational achievement for their children.

• Emphasised importance of parental attitudes in educational success of children.

• Feinstein supports Douglas.

• Argues that w/c parents' lack of interest in their children's education is a significant factor affecting their performance.

• Highlights that educational success is closely linked to the level of interest and support shown by parents.

• Sugarman identified four key features of working-class subculture that contribute to educational underachievement:

  • Fatalism: Belief in fate and a lack of control over one’s future.

  • Collectivism: Valuing being part of a group more than individual success.

  • Immediate Gratification: Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices for future rewards.

  • Present-time Orientation: Focusing on the present rather than planning for the future.

• Bernstein distinguished between two types of language codes:

  • Restricted Code: Typically used by the working class, characterised by limited vocabulary and simple sentence structure.

  • Elaborated Code: Typically used by the middle class, characterised by a wider vocabulary and more complex sentences. He argued that the elaborated code is favoured by the education system, giving middle-class children an advantage.

• Keddie criticised the concept of cultural deprivation as a myth. She argued that working-class children are culturally different, not deprived.

• The problem lies in the education system, which is biased towards middle-class values and fails to recognise the validity of working-class culture.

• Troyna and Williams criticised the ethnocentric curriculum that favours white, middle-class culture and marginalises other cultures.

• They argued that the education system needs to be more inclusive and recognise the diverse cultural backgrounds of all students.

• Blackstone and Mortimer argued that working-class parents are not disinterested in their children’s education but face barriers such as inflexible work schedules and a lack of understanding of the education system. They highlighted that these structural factors, rather than a lack of interest, limit parental involvement in education.

• Bourdieu introduced the concept of cultural capital, which refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility. He argued that middle-class families possess more cultural capital, which gives their children an advantage in the education system. Cultural capital includes knowledge, skills, education, and any other advantages a person has which give them a higher status in society.

Key Theories

• Cultural Deprivation Theory:

  • Suggests that middle-class values and socialisation prepare children for educational and career success, whereas working-class children often lack these cultural assets.

  • Keddie: Argues that cultural deprivation is a myth and that working-class children are culturally different rather than deprived. The education system is middle-class and ethnocentric, which can unfairly penalise working-class children.

• Compensatory Education:

  • Operation Head Start (1960s, USA): An initiative that includes educational TV programs like Sesame Street to teach norms, values, and positive attitudes towards learning.

  • Education Action Zones (1990s, UK): Areas identified for poor educational facilities were given additional funding to improve resources and attract better teachers.

  • Sure Start (2000s, UK): Centres providing homework clubs, breakfast clubs, libraries, and access to medical services to support children in deprived areas.

• Speech Hierarchy:

  • Joyner and Williams: Assert that there is a speech hierarchy in education where white middle-class speech is seen as the most desirable, and other speech patterns (e.g., working-class, Black minority ethnic) are viewed as inferior and often ignored or punished.

• Barriers to Parental Involvement:

  • Blackstone and Mortimer: State that working-class parents are often excluded from the educational system due to work schedules that conflict with school events, making it difficult for them to engage in their children's education.

• Material Deprivation:

  • General Concept: Refers to the impact of poverty and lack of material necessities on educational achievement, including poor housing, poor diet, health issues, and hidden costs of education (e.g., uniforms, equipment, educational trips).

  • Statistics: Only 33% of children on free school meals achieve 5 GCSEs at grade C or above. 90% of failing schools are in deprived areas. Truancy and exclusion rates are higher in poorer areas.

• Cultural Capital:

  • Pierre Bourdieu: A French sociologist who argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement. Cultural capital (knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills passed through middle-class socialisation) gives an advantage in the educational system.

  • Economic Capital: Middle-class parents use their economic resources to help their children gain cultural capital, which leads to educational capital (qualifications) and eventually economic capital (high-paying jobs).

• Marketisation and Parental Choice:

  • Gewirtz: Examines the impact of marketisation on parental choice in education. Identifies three types of parents:

    • Privileged-Skilled Choosers: Middle-class parents with cultural and economic capital who can shop around for the best schools.

    • Disconnected-Local Choosers: Working-class parents who lack cultural and economic capital, often choosing the closest or safest school.

    • Semi-Skilled Choosers: Ambitious working-class parents who want better for their children but are often frustrated by a lack of understanding of the education system.

NOTES ON VIDEO

• Difference in achievement between pupils from different social classes in Britain.

  • Parental occupation determines social class:

    • Middle class: Non-manual professional jobs (white-collar) such as office work, lawyers, doctors, teachers.

    • Working class: Manual occupations and service industry jobs (blue-collar) such as retail.

• Class Differences in Achievement

  • Middle class students generally achieve more than working class students.

  • Exceptions exist, but the general trend shows middle class outperforming working class.

  • Middle-class advantage: Ability to afford private schooling.

    • 7% of UK schools are private.

    • 90% of privately educated students go to university.

    • Private school students make up more than half of Oxford and Cambridge entrants.

• Focus on State Education

  • State education sector serves the majority of UK students.

  • Key external factors affecting achievement: Cultural deprivation, material deprivation, cultural capital, marketisation, and parental choice.

• Cultural Deprivation

  • Values and attitudes are acquired through primary socialisation.

  • Basic cultural equipment includes language, self-discipline, and reasoning.

  • Middle-class parents socialie children better, leading to cultural deprivation among working-class children.

  • Working-class homes often lack educational resources like books and toys.

• Intellectual Development and Language

  • Working-class pupils score lower on tests due to less reading and educational stimulation at home.

  • Middle-class mothers spend more time selecting educational toys.

  • Language used by working-class families may be deficient, affecting children's communication and reasoning skills.

  • Bernstein identified two speech codes:

    • Restricted code: Gestures, single words, disjointed phrases, slang (used by working class).

    • Elaborated code: Detailed, explanatory, analytical language (used by middle class).

  • Educational materials and tests are in elaborated code, disadvantaging working-class students.

• Parental Attitudes and Support

  • Feinstein (1998): Working-class parents have a negative attitude towards education, provide less motivation and support.

  • Hyman: Working-class create self-imposed barriers to educational and career success.

  • Working-class children may feel education is not for them, leading to disengagement and underachievement.

• Self-Imposed Barriers (Sugarman)

  • Fatalism: Belief in predetermined fate, lack of agency to change their situation.

  • Collectivism: Preference for group identity over individual success.

  • Immediate gratification: Preference for immediate pleasure over long-term rewards.

  • Present time orientation: Living for the moment, not planning for the future.

Cultural Deprivation

1. Immediate Gratification vs. Deferred Gratification:

   • Middle-class values emphasize deferred gratification, preparing children for long-term educational and career success.

   • Working-class parents often fail to instill these values, leading to cultural deprivation.

2. Compensatory Education Programs:

   • Operation Head Start (1960s, USA):

     • Programs like Sesame Street aimed to teach norms, values, and positive attitudes towards learning.

   • Education Action Zones (1990s, UK):

     • Areas with poor educational facilities received more funding to improve resources and attract better teachers.

   • Sure Start (2000s, UK):

     • Centers provided homework clubs, breakfast clubs, libraries, and access to medical services to support children's education.

3. Criticism of Cultural Deprivation:

   • Kiddy's Argument:

     • Cultural deprivation is a myth; working-class children are culturally different, not deprived.

     • The education system is middle-class and ethnocentric, valuing middle-class norms and potentially unfair to working-class children.

   • Joyner and Williams:

     • There exists a speech hierarchy where middle-class speech codes are seen as superior.

   • Blackstone and Mortimer:

     • Working-class parents are often excluded from the education system due to irregular work hours, preventing them from engaging with their children's education.

Material Deprivation

1. Link between Poverty and Educational Underachievement:

   • Poor housing affects space for study, health, and attendance at school.

   • Poor diet impacts energy levels and overall health, affecting school performance.

   • Hidden costs of education (uniforms, equipment, trips) add financial strain on working-class families.

   • Fear of debt deters working-class students from pursuing higher education.

2. Statistics:

   • Only 33% of children receiving free school meals achieve five GCSEs (grades A* to C).

   • 90% of failing schools are in deprived areas.

   • Exclusion and truancy are more common in poorer areas.

Cultural Capital

1. Pierre Bourdieu's Concept:

   • Cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement.

   • Middle-class culture is a form of capital, providing an advantage in the education system.

   • Middle-class parents socialize children into their culture, preparing them for success in school.

2. Examples of Cultural Capital:

   • Reading to children, exposing them to literature, museums, cultural holidays, and extracurricular activities.

   • Middle-class parents use economic capital to provide cultural capital, helping their children gain educational qualifications and economic capital later in life.

3. Disadvantage for Working-Class Children:

   • Lack of economic and cultural capital puts working-class children at a disadvantage in a middle-class education system.

Marketisation and Parental Choice

1. Parental Types in School Choice:

   • Privileged-Skilled Choosers:

     • Middle-class parents with cultural and economic capital who research and choose the best schools.

   • Disconnected Local Choosers:

     • Working-class parents who choose the nearest or safest school due to a lack of cultural and economic capital.

   • Semi-Skilled Choosers:

     • Ambitious working-class parents frustrated by the system, relying on opinions within their social circle.

2. Impact of Marketisation:

   • The system benefits middle-class parents and children more than working-class ones, perpetuating educational inequalities.