Soc: ch3
Basic Concepts
Culture vs. society
Culture consists of the values, norms, material goods, and languages/symbols that people use to construct their understanding of the world. It includes beliefs and expectations about one another and the world, learned rather than instinctive, and can be viewed as a “design for living” or a “tool kit” of practices, knowledge, and symbols (Kluckhohn, 1949; Swidler, 1986).
A society is a system of interrelationships that connects individuals. The term derives from a Latin root related to ties that bind people, enabling sustained interaction. Bonds can be informal (friendship, family) or formal (religious organizations, businesses, nations).
Key interdependence: No society could exist without culture, and no culture without a society.
Historically, early sociology (Durkheim) reflected Eurocentric values; two world wars helped undermine the notion of European superiority and promoted recognition of cultural diversity.
Major themes about culture
Culture is learned and shared within a group; it shapes behavior and perception.
The study of culture aims to understand diversity and reduce ethnocentric judgments.
Culture includes both tangible objects and intangible ideas (values, norms, symbols).
Cultural universals
Some features appear in virtually all societies; they are called cultural universals.
Two prominent universals: communication (and expression) and reliance on material objects in daily life.
All cultures have a grammatically complex language and some form of family system with norms around child care.
Marriage is a cultural universal; religious rituals and property rights are universal too, though traits like number of spouses or what counts as acceptable behavior vary by culture.
Other universals include art, dance, bodily adornment, games, gift-giving, joking, and hygiene practices.
Variations exist within each universal (e.g., definitions of marriage, incest prohibitions vary; ancient Egypt allowed sibling incest among ruling classes).
Forms of culture
Nonmaterial culture: cultural ideas, including values, norms, symbols, language, and speech/writing.
Material culture: physical objects created by a society (tools, technology, clothing, buildings, furniture, etc.).
Forms of culture in daily life
Culture guides everyday life through dress, family life, work patterns, religious ceremonies, and leisure.
The goods a society creates (weapons, plows, factories, computers, books, dwellings) are part of material culture.
Relationship between culture and technology
Material culture centers on technology and artifacts; modern material culture is rapidly globalizing via information technology, manufacturing networks, and global brands.
The iPhone example illustrates globalization of material culture: components sourced from ~200 manufacturers worldwide, with tech developed internationally.
Globalized classrooms and department stores and brands like McDonald’s show how material culture standardizes across borders.
Nonmaterial Culture
Nonmaterial culture components
Values: abstract ideals about what is desirable or right (e.g., fidelity in marriage; individualism vs. communal needs).
Norms: rules of social life that guide behavior; vary across cultures and over time.
Symbols and language: means of communication and meaning (speech, writing, signs, objects, dress, architecture).
Language and symbols
Language demonstrates unity and diversity of human culture: many languages exist; some share roots, others do not.
Language is involved in nearly all activities, including ceremony, religion, poetry, and law.
Language enables abstraction, storytelling, and jokes; all symbols represent reality or imagined concepts.
Signifiers: any vehicle of meaning (speech sounds, written marks, dress, visuals, etc.).
Symbols can be material or cultural; they can denote things, acts, or ideas beyond immediate perception.
Semiotics (Hawkes, 1977): both material objects and signs carry symbolic meaning; culture uses signs to convey meaning.
Language and perception
Languages and cultural symbols shape how people perceive and categorize the world (linguistic relativity hypothesis: language influences perception because it provides the terms with which we think and notice the world).
Example: expert winter athletes use terms like black ice, corn, powder, etc. to describe snow/ice conditions—altering perception and awareness of risks.
Language and identity/ownership of language
Language contributes to cultural continuity and identity; it outlives individual speakers and can anchor historical memory.
Globalization makes English increasingly dominant in business and the internet, but local attachments to language persist (e.g., Quebec’s French-speaking population; fear of language erosion).
Minority languages can be restricted or outlawed (e.g., Turkey restricting Kurdish); in some places, “English-only” movements seek to limit language use in education/government.
Writing vs speech
Speech is contextual and ephemeral; writing preserves ideas and experiences across time and space.
Writing began as a means of recording lists, rituals, land ownership, or family history; documents enable archival research and long-term memory.
Dogs as cultural symbols
Across cultures, dogs have different meanings: household pets in the U.S.; guardians/scavengers in Guatemala’s Indian culture; dogs as food in the Akha of northern Thailand.
These diverse meanings require interpretation to understand cultural significance.
Texts as cultural artifacts
Texts preserve information across generations; they enable historians to study past cultures and continuities.
Material Culture
What material culture includes
Physical objects created by society to influence daily life (consumer goods, clothing, tools, housing, technology).
Central role of technology
Technology is a central component of material culture; it shapes how people live and work.
Globalization of technology
Modern technology is developed globally and distributed through complex supply chains; examples include smartphones (iPhone) with components from many countries and brands like McDonald’s appearing worldwide.
The globalization of material culture contributes to cultural convergence in some domains (classrooms, department stores looking similar across countries).
Language, Writing, and Semiotics in Culture
Language as a unifying and diversifying force
Language organizes daily life, ceremonies, religion, poetry, and other spheres.
Writing as a major cultural shift: enables the preservation and dissemination of information beyond personal memory.
Signs, symbols, and semiotics in culture
A signifier is any vehicle of meaning (speech sounds, written marks, dress, architecture, etc.).
Symbols convey cultural meanings and can be material or abstract; signs and symbols are interpreted within a culture.
Texts and permanence
Written texts endure across time, enabling cross-generational communication and historical analysis.
Language and collective identity
Language contributes to a sense of cultural heritage and continuity; language policy can become a political issue (minority language rights; language standardization debates).
Cultural Change, Conflicts, and International Considerations
Cultural conflicts
Norms perceived as culturally incompatible can clash, leading to social tension (e.g., veiling debates in France and other Europe countries with large immigrant populations from the Middle East/North Africa).
Conflicts also arise around the perceived separation of church and state, or concerns about women’s rights linked to traditional dress codes.
Changing norms over time
Norms are not static; they can shift due to health, science, or social movements.
Example: Smoking norms shifted after 1964 Surgeon General’s report; smoking went from a symbol of independence and glamour to a perception of health risk; by 2017, only about 14% of American adults smoked.
Global processes
The rapid movement of people, ideas, goods, and information challenges cultural boundaries and fosters new forms of exchange and conflict.
Globalization can lead to cultural homogenization in some domains (consumer culture, global brands) while also provoking resistance and preservation of local identities (language preservation movements, regional pride).
Connections and Implications for Study
Foundational principles
Culture and society are interdependent; understanding one requires considering the other.
Cultural universals suggest shared human patterns, but vast variation shapes each society’s unique practices.
Nonmaterial culture (values, norms, symbols) interacts with material culture (technology, artifacts) to shape everyday life.
Practical implications
Cross-cultural understanding requires avoiding ethnocentric judgments and recognizing diverse ways of life.
Globalization affects both the spread of technologies and the persistence of local languages and customs.
Policy debates around language rights, religious symbols, and education reflect ongoing tensions between universal human rights and cultural particularities.
Check Your Understanding (From the Transcript)
Question: What is a society?
Answer: A system of interrelationships that connects individuals. (Option A)
Question: An example of material culture would be the
Answer: D. objects used by members of the culture
Note: The transcript also includes a broader discussion of culture’s elements (values, norms, material goods, language), cultural universals, and the interplay between language, writing, and symbols as key components of cultural analysis.
Illustrative Examples and Symbols from the Text
Traditional city symbols vs. modern symbols of power
Traditional cities place religious temples or churches on high ground to symbolize religious authority; in modern societies, skyscrapers of big business often occupy this symbolic position, illustrating shifts in power and cultural emphasis.
Confucian influence and modern contrasts
Chinese cultural emphasis on collective effort and modesty (e.g., Confucius proverb about learning from others) contrasts with American ideals of individual achievement; shows how culture shapes values and norms even within globally connected societies.
Global supply chains and cultural reach
The iPhone example demonstrates how a single modern artifact embodies design and fabrication across multiple cultures and countries, reflecting globalization’s reach into everyday life.
Language as political and cultural force
Quebec’s commitment to French demonstrates how language ties to regional identity and political autonomy, even within a larger country; Kurdish language restrictions in Turkey show how state policy can intersect with minority language rights.
Norm evolution in health behavior
The shift in smoking norms illustrates how new scientific information and public health campaigns can redefine social expectations and personal choices.
The Cultural Turn in Sociology
Focus: understanding the role of culture in daily life and how sociologists interpret cultural influence and change. The “cultural turn” describes sociology’s shift toward analyzing culture not as a rigid determinant but as a set of tools people select from and adapt to fit different situations. This challenges the old view that culture rigidly fixes our values and behaviors. Key references: Inglis (2005).
Culture as a tool kit (Swidler, 1986):
Culture provides a toolkit from which people select different understandings and behaviors.
People may dye their hair, wear nose rings, and still accept traditional ideas about sexual restraint, illustrating that the tool kit is large and contents vary.
Because individuals participate in multiple cultures, scripts can conflict and be improvised.
Scripts and adaptability:
Cultural scripts shape beliefs, values, and actions; appropriate scripts in given contexts are more likely to be followed and recalled when they fit past events.
Examples: a woman’s response to a late-night stranger can be governed by fear scripts shaped by media, personal experience, and social norms; a man’s response may be shaped by different scripts in the same situation.
Illustrative scenario: a woman walking in an unfamiliar city, a male stranger approaches with a question. Fear scripts (popularized by film/TV/true crime) may lead her to seek safety rather than engage. When retelling, memory may bias traits (e.g., stranger’s height) to fit the script.
Alternative scripts: the woman could offer help (Good Samaritan script); the man could choose a non-confrontational script (e.g., politely asking for directions and staying apart).
No single reality: multiple cultural scripts can play out in any encounter; sociology seeks to understand different realities, scripts, and why people choose particular scripts over others. Key scholars cited: Bonnell & Hunt (1999); Chaney (1994); Glassner (1999); Hays (2000); Long (1997); Seidman (1997); Sewell (1999); Smith & West (2000); Swidler (2001).
The Cultural Diamond (Wendy Griswold): four elements define a culture as a system, forming a diamond shape with six linkages; focus here is on the linkage between cultural objects and the social world.
The four elements:
1) Cultural objects (material and nonmaterial)
2) Creators/producers of cultural objects
3) Receivers of cultural objects (active meaning-making, not passive reception)
4) The larger social world (economic, political, social, and cultural patterns)
Six possible linkages among the four elements.
Griswold argues that cultural sociology is especially concerned with the linkage between cultural objects and the social world.
Year cited: Griswold (2013).
Early Human Culture and the Role of the Environment
Human culture and biology are intertwined; culture helps explain how humans adapt to the physical environment.
The historical dimension of the sociological imagination is used to understand forms of society before modern industrialism.
Evolution and the origins of culture:
Humans evolved from apelike ancestors on the African continent about 4{,}000{,}000 years ago. The first evidence of humanlike culture dates back about 2{,}000{,}000 years.
Early humans created stone tools, hunted, gathered, used fire, and lived in highly cooperative bands. Culture enabled abstraction, planning hunts, and compensating for physical limitations (e.g., lack of claws/teeth, slower speed).
The larger brain allowed greater adaptive learning to cope with environmental changes (e.g., Ice Age) and to develop fires and clothing.
Despite culture, early humans were tied to the physical environment due to limited technological modification capabilities.
Key sources: Deacon (1998); Bennett (1976); Harris (1975, 1978, 1980).
Modern globalization and technology pose challenges and opportunities for future global cultural diversity.
The Earliest Societies: Hunters and Gatherers
For most of human existence, people lived in small hunting-and-gathering groups (often 30–40 people). This is summarized in Table 3.1.
Hunter-gatherer livelihoods: low material inequality, kin-based leadership, decision-making by elder men, mobility within fixed territories, limited possessions, ritual life, and collective ceremonies.
The study of hunting-and-gathering cultures reminds us that modern industrial structures are not natural or universal; some institutions reflect historical contingencies. Inequality and wealth differences were minimal compared with later civilizations.
Table 3.1: Types of Human Society (summary excerpts)
Hunting and gathering societies: 50{,}000 B.C.E. to present; small groups; minimal material goods; sharing ethos; nomadic or semi-nomadic; limited wealth differences.
Pastoral societies: 12{,}000 B.C.E. to present; rely on domesticated animals; range from hundreds to thousands; notable inequalities; often ruled by chiefs or warrior kings.
Agrarian (horticultural) societies: 12{,}000 B.C.E. to present; cultivation of fixed plots; larger stockpiles of material possessions; growth of cities; more pronounced inequalities and centralized governance.
By 6000 B.C.E. onward, evidence shows larger, more complex societies, with writing and civilization often described as the emergence of civilization.
Note: Many traditional civilizations were empires that conquered and integrated others (e.g., Rome, China); when writing and science flourished, civilizations were often called such, or “civilizations.”
The Transition from Traditional to Industrial Societies
Industrial societies emerged with the rise of machine production based on inanimate power resources (e.g., steam, water).
Key driver: industrialization, particularly in Britain in the 18th century, leading to rapid technological change between 1750 ext{ and } 1850.
In industrialized societies today, most people work in factories, offices, or shops; about 55 ext{ extpercent} live in urban areas (as of 2018, UN DESA data).
The largest cities are much larger than traditional urban settlements; urban life becomes more impersonal and encounters with strangers become common.
Modern globalization links economic strength, political cohesion, and military power to the spread of Western culture.
Characteristics of industrialized societies: highly differentiated division of labor, rapid transportation and communication, and the creation of nation-states with formal governance.
The shift is described as moving from traditional states with clear borders and shared culture to nation-states with centralized laws that apply uniformly across citizens.
The United States is identified as a nation-state, illustrating the modern political organization.
Industrial technology changed warfare and organization (e.g., weaponry, logistics). The result is a more advanced, but potentially more constraining social order—often described by the term the “iron cage.”
Theorists discussed include Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, whose predictions and concepts continue to influence debates about modernity, even as newer theories provide additional insight.
The Modern Theoretical Landscape
Durkheim: Organic solidarity and the increasing division of labor create interdependence among specialized functions; a rise in social cohesion through interdependence.
Marx: Industrial society creates class divisions where the capitalist class benefits from technological advances at the expense of the working class; a working-class revolution may be necessary to establish a classless society.
Weber: Focus on rational-legal authority and the bureaucratic state; efficiency and control come with a risk of rationalization and the “iron cage” limiting human freedom and potential.
These classical theories helped explain changes from preindustrial to industrial societies and continue to inform discussions of modernity.
The Transition to a Postindustrial Society
Contemporary theorists emphasize a transition away from manufacturing and low-paying service work toward information technology, artificial intelligence, and robotics.
Examples of job replacement range from fast-food servers to highly skilled professionals (engineers, accountants).
This chapter foreshadows a broader discussion of a postindustrial society in Chapter 14.
Concept Checks and Understanding
Check Your Understanding: Question 1
Question: One reason why early humans were closely tied to their physical environment was because
A. social pressure to remain tied to one location
B. they lacked the technology necessary to modify their surroundings
C. they followed spiritual beliefs that led them to hold their land in high regard
D. they did not have the cognitive ability to adapt to new spaces
Answer: B
Check Your Understanding: Question 2
Question: The cultural turn in sociology reveals that
A. different cultures will eventually come to rely on the same cultural script
B. culture rigidly determines our values and behaviors
C. one script of how to view reality tends to dominate in a given culture
D. people within a shared culture can experience different realities
Answer: D
Connections to broader themes
The cultural turn links daily life, media representations, and political discourse to the ideas people use to interpret their environments.
The cultural diamond connects material and nonmaterial culture to the social world through producers, receivers, and larger societal patterns, highlighting how culture is produced, disseminated, and interpreted within a social framework.
The evolution from hunting/gathering to agrarian to industrial societies demonstrates how changes in technology, economy, and political organization influence cultural norms, social inequality, and forms of governance.
The shift to a postindustrial, information-driven economy raises questions about work, identity, and social cohesion in a rapidly changing global landscape.
Key terms to remember
Cultural turn: shift to examining culture as dynamic practice in daily life rather than fixed determinant.
Tool kit: Swidler’s concept that culture provides a set of usable tools/scripts.
Scripts: culturally shaped patterns of action and interpretation used in social interaction.
Cultural diamond: Griswold’s model with four elements and six linkages forming a complex cultural system.
Organic solidarity: Durkheim’s concept of increasing interdependence due to higher division of labor.
Rational-legal authority: Weber’s modern form of governance based on rules and laws.
Iron cage: Weber’s metaphor for the constraining effects of rationalization.
Postindustrial: society characterized by information technology and services rather than manufacturing.
Formulas and numerical references (for quick recall)
Early human evidences: 4{,}000{,}000 ext{ years ago}; 2{,}000{,}000 ext{ years ago}
Hunter-gatherer group size: 30 ext{ to } 40 ext{ people}
Industrial revolution period: approximately 1750 ext{ to } 1850 (industrial changes peaking here)
Urbanization in modern societies: 55 ext{ extpercent} live in urban areas (UN DESA, 2018)
Century notation: 18^{ ext{th}}- ext{19}^{ ext{th}} ext{ centuries}
1770: Patent of the spinning jenny (early industrial machinery)
Short answer prompts to study
What are the four elements of Griswold’s cultural diamond and how do they interact?
How does Swidler’s “tool kit” change our understanding of culture’s influence on behavior?
Compare Durkheim’s organic solidarity, Marx’s class-based view of industrial society, and Weber’s rational-legal bureaucracy. What are their implications for freedom and social order?
Why is it significant that there can be multiple scripts in a single social encounter?
How does the postindustrial shift challenge traditional notions of work and social structure?
Colonialism, Globalization, and the Modern World
Recognize the legacies of colonialism and the effects of globalization on your life and the lives of people around the world.
Colonialism (17th to early 20th century): Western powers established colonies in many areas previously occupied by traditional societies.
End of colonialism by the mid-20th century, but lasting global maps and social structures remained shaped by colonialism.
Harmful effects of colonialism highlighted by scholars: oppression and exploitation of Indigenous peoples in colonized nations (McKay et al., 2020).
Settler colonialism (e.g., North America, Australia, New Zealand): large-scale European settlement; Indigenous populations were greatly reduced by disease and conquest (Diamond, 1999; Veracini, 2010).
Regions with large native populations ruled by colonial powers often saw wealth co-opted by the home country, hindering industrial development; in contrast, settler colonies often industrialized.
Regions like South Asia, much of Africa, and Latin America experienced colonial rule with governance by colonial powers largely for the home country’s benefit.
Post-colonial era: many former colonies gained independence, with rapid economic growth in some (e.g., India and Brazil becoming major global growth drivers) (Nederveen Pieterse, 2011).
No universally agreed-upon classification of industrialization; traditional “developed” vs. “developing” labels sparked objections due to perceived bias and ignorance of colonial legacies.
Among sociologists, commonly used distinctions are between the Global North and the Global South: most of the pre-1950 industrialized world is in the Northern Hemisphere, while most of the developing world lies in the Southern Hemisphere (with notable exceptions).
The Global North and Global South; Cultural Capital
Power relations are culturally embedded; Pierre Bourdie u (1986) introduced the concept of cultural capital, which accumulates within a society and confers power and status (Bourdie u, 2004).
Bourdie u’s three kinds of cultural capital, each strongly influenced by one’s socio-economic position:
Embodied cultural capital: one’s very person – e.g., dress, speech, manners.
Objectified cultural capital: material objects one possesses – e.g., home, car, computer.
Institutionalized cultural capital: formal credentials and awards recognized by institutions (e.g., academic degrees).
In the United States, possessing high levels of cultural capital can translate into advantages: articulate English-language skills, access to high-end computers and software, and the qualifications necessary for highly paid jobs.
While there are exceptions, cultural capital tends to reproduce social and economic inequality across generations by embedding power relations in everyday life.
Global South: many countries gained independence only after World War II and continue to confront economic challenges shaped by colonial legacies; some never underwent European rule in the same way, yet still experience globalization’s effects.
Examples of embedded historical shifts:
Haiti became the first autonomous Black republic in 1804.
Spanish colonies in South America acquired independence around the early 19th century; Brazil broke from Portugal in 1822.
China was compelled from the 17th century to enter trading agreements with European powers, which assumed governance over certain areas and ports; Hong Kong was the last such case.
Even countries that were never directly ruled by Europe have been heavily influenced by colonial relations and globalization.
Global Poverty, Hunger, and Development Indicators
Extreme poverty: the World Bank (2022d) estimates 648 million people live on 2.15 or less per day, about 8% of the world’s population.
Hunger and food insecurity (UN FAO et al., 2022): as of 2021, 828 million people experienced hunger; up to 2.3 billion faced food insecurity.
Geographic concentration: most poverty and hunger reside in the Global South, with roughly half of the affected population in sub-Saharan Africa; a third of the poor and hungry live in South Asia (India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Bangladesh).
China’s progress: about 850 million people lifted out of poverty between 1990 and 2019 (World Bank & DRCSC, 2022).
Proximity to the United States: about 201 million poor live on the doorstep of the U.S. in the Caribbean and Central/South America (UN ECLAC, 2022).
Progress toward the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) toward ending poverty by 2030 remains uneven, with significant challenges in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
The 2008 global economic crisis had a particularly destructive impact on poverty, especially affecting women (UN ESCAP, 2010).
Most poverty reduction gains have come from economic growth in China and East Asia.
Immigrant poverty in the United States: despite immigrants and their descendants making up about 24.2% of the U.S. population, they account for about 25% of those living in poverty (Camarota & Zeigler, 2022).
Rural poverty: poverty, malnutrition, lower life expectancy, and substandard housing are most severe in rural areas with limited arable land and frequent climate shocks (droughts/floods).
Global-North–Global-South connections: global poverty is not a distant issue for Americans; migrant flows and transnational ties link poverty and development across regions.
Industrialization, Development, and Happiness
Emerging economies: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, India, Mexico, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan.
East Asia’s growth rates have outpaced many Western economies; several emerging economies invest abroad while promoting domestic growth (e.g., China investing in Africa and Latin America; South Korea’s steel production up ~50 ext{%} 2003–2013) and Singapore/Taiwan becoming regional hubs.
Zakaria’s "rise of the rest" (2009) frames a shift in global economic power toward non-Western economies.
Growth and happiness: economic growth does not automatically translate into increased well-being. Studies suggest happiness or life satisfaction can stagnate or decline even as GDP grows (Easterlin, 2001; 2003; 2010; Easterlin & Sawangfa, 2010; Easterlin et al., 2010; 2012; Inglehart, 1997).
Cultural learning and values: globalization exposes people to different cultural norms; e.g., Western individualism influencing Chinese youth.
Cultural differences in everyday life: oysters are eaten in the U.S. but not kittens or puppies in some cultures; kissing is ordinary in some contexts but offensive in others.
Conformity, Culture, and Globalization
Cultural conformity as a social necessity:
Cultures promote conformity to norms via socialization (primary mechanism: families) and social control (informal punishment, gossip, ostracism) or formal discipline (e.g., tickets, imprisonment) (Parsons, 1951/1964; Foucault, 1975).
Durkheim highlighted punishment not only to enforce norms but to remind others of those norms and values.
Cultural variability in conformity:
Hofstede’s research: Chinese culture is highly conformity-valuing; American culture emphasizes individualism.
Globalization (e.g., Starbucks, McDonald’s, internet, smartphones) accelerates exposure to diverse values and can promote more individualistic orientations in some contexts (e.g., among young Chinese).
Cultural diffusion and subcultures:
Subcultures are groups with distinct styles and norms within a larger society (e.g., Goths, cosplayers, hackers, hippies, hip-hop fans).
Subcultures often retain some dominant-norm alignment, but can also function as sites of creativity and change within a society.
Cultural Conformity, Diversity, and Multiculturalism
Cultural diversity in industrial societies:
Industrialized nations host multiple subcultures and communities; societies become cultural composites due to history of slavery, colonialism, war, migration, and globalization.
Modern cities host diverse subcultures side by side; some people identify with a single subculture, others move among several.
Conformity and social change:
Social movements can mobilize subcultures to express beliefs and advocate for change (e.g., LGBTQ+ rights movement in the U.S.; 2015 nationwide legalization of same-sex marriage in the U.S.).
Assimilation vs. multiculturalism:
Assimilation: minority cultures gradually adopt mainstream culture; migrants may retain some group identity but increasingly align with broader norms (e.g., Americans increasingly using the term 'American').
The “salad bowl” model (multiculturalism) argues that different cultures can coexist, retain unique identities, and contribute to a richer whole (Parekh, 2010; Anzaldúa, 1990).
The rise of multiculturalism is reflected in curricula, policies, and social attitudes that emphasize celebrating cultural contributions and promoting equality across cultures.
Hip-hop as a case study of cultural diffusion:
Origins in the Bronx (mid-1970s) with DJ Kool Herc; Jamaican toasting tradition contributed to the style.
M.I.A. represents widening appeal of hip-hop across cultural lines (Sri Lankan Tamil descent; West London milieu).
Hip-hop demonstrates sampling and transformation: borrowing elements from earlier forms, recasting them to new contexts to create meaning (not simply repetition).
Hip-hop is a global form, reflecting a patchwork of subcultures and moments in time and serving as a soundtrack to a developing global culture.
The “sampling identities” process shows how subcultures can influence one another and shape broader cultural production.
Subcultures and Cultural Identity
Subcultures and social identity:
Subcultures develop around work types (long-distance truckers, coal miners, stockbrokers, programmers, athletes, lawyers, artists) and emphasize distinctive values (strength, bravery, knowledge, speed, wealth, creativity).
Most subcultures do not drastically detach from the dominant culture; they coexist and interact with mainstream norms.
Assimilation vs. multiculturalism in the United States:
Many migrants gradually adopt the label of “American,” but a fully integrated, single-identity model is contested; a segmented assimilation perspective recognizes differing opportunities to enter U.S. society.
The salad bowl metaphor emphasizes diversity while preserving individual cultural identities.
Cultural Identity, Ethnocentrism, and Cultural Relativism
Cultural identity and ethnocentrism:
Every culture has unique patterns of behavior; daily life can vary dramatically across cultures (e.g., differences in rituals, cleanliness norms, body modification practices).
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture; sociologists seek to avoid this bias (cultural relativism).
Cultural relativism:
The practice of judging a society by its own standards; applying cultural relativism can be challenging and may raise questions about universal standards.
Example of clash: female genital cutting (FGC) as a ritual in some African, Asian, and Middle Eastern societies, where it is culturally normative, versus global health and human-rights perspectives treating it as harm.
World Health Organization (2023) estimates more than 200 million girls and women have undergone FGC.
Nigerian studies (Ebomoyi, 1987) show a mix of attitudes among women in affected communities; some favor continuation for cultural reasons, others advocate stopping.
In France, immigrant mothers sometimes seek traditional FGC for their daughters, provoking ethnocentric critiques from European circles; feminist scholars caution against sensationalizing the practice without understanding structural factors.
Globalization has intensified debates and conflicts around cultural norms and values; sociologists emphasize careful, nuanced analysis rather than knee-jerk judgments.
Check Your Understanding and Practical Reflections
Concepts to remember:
Colonialism and its legacies shape contemporary social and economic structures.
Global North vs Global South are heuristic categories reflecting power relations, not rigid geographic divisions.
Cultural capital (embodied, objectified, institutionalized) underpins social inequality and mobility.
Multiculturalism vs assimilation: different models for integrating diverse cultures.
Subcultures can both reflect conformity to group norms and drive cultural innovation.
Ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism: approaches to understanding cultures without imposing one’s own standards.
Reflective questions:
Can you identify subcultures around your own community and describe how they interact with dominant norms?
How might globalization influence values such as individualism in different cultural contexts?
In what contexts might cultural appropriation be harmful, and when might it reflect cultural exchange or transformation?
How do the concepts of cultural capital and global poverty relate to real-world inequality and access to opportunities?
Quick References and Notable Points
Colonial legacies include persistent inequality and unequal development across former colonies (McKay et al., 2020).
Bourdie u’s concept of cultural capital clarifies how cultural assets translate into social power: embodied, objectified, and institutionalized forms (Bourdie u, 1986/2004).
Poverty and hunger indicators (as of 2021–2022):
Extreme poverty: 648\,\text{million} people; 8\% of the world’s population; threshold: 2.15 per day.
Hunger: 828\,\text{million}; food insecurity: up to 2.3\text{ billion}.
China’s poverty reduction: 850\,\text{million} lifted out (1990–2019).
Economic and social dynamics:
The “rise of the rest” (Zakaria, 2009) highlights shifting global economic power toward non-Western actors.
The 2008 crisis affected poverty, particularly for women.
Immigrant contributions to poverty statistics in the U.S. demonstrate cross-border linkages and systemic inequality (24.2\% of the population are immigrants or descendants; 25\% of those in poverty).
Cultural dynamics and globalization:
Globalization exposes populations to Western values (e.g., individualism) and fosters cross-cultural exchange (hip-hop’s globalization; sampling as identity transformation).
Cultural diversity grows in industrial societies; multiculturalism emphasizes equal participation and cultural contribution.
Controversies and debates:
Cultural appropriation involves sensitive power dynamics, historical context, and respect for groups with histories of oppression (Lipsitz; Yale Halloween 2015 case).
Female genital cutting presents a clash between universal health ethics and cultural relativism; ongoing debates about universal rights vs. cultural practices (WHO 2023).
Key figures and sources: McKay et al. (2020); Diamond (1999); Veracini (2010); Nederveen Pieterse (2011); Bourdie u (1986); Barker (2004); Parsons (1951/1964); Foucault (1975); Hofstede (1997); Minkov & Hofstede (2012); Easterlin (various years); Anzaldúa (1990); Parekh (2010); Zakaria (2009); Wade (2012); Knop et al. (2012).
Unanswered Questions
sociobiology - the study of the biological basis of social behavior, examining how evolutionary processes shape social structures and norms in various cultures.
instincts - the inherent behaviors that drive individuals to act in certain ways within their social environments, often influenced by genetics and evolutionary history.
Dose the internet promote a global Culture? This question explores the influence of digital communication on the formation of a shared cultural identity, analyzing how online interactions might bridge cultural divides or reinforce local traditions. How do globalization and the internet interact to create new social norms and values across different societies?
Dose Globalization Weaken or Strengthen Local Cultures? This inquiry delves into the complex relationship between globalization and the preservation of local cultures, assessing whether the influx of global influences enhances cultural exchange or leads to the dilution of traditional practices and identities.
nationalism - a strong identification with and support for one's nation, which can manifest in the promotion of national culture and interests, sometimes in contrast to global influences.
How easily do cultures change? - The process of cultural change can vary widely depending on factors such as exposure to external influences, technological advancements, and the resilience of local traditions. As societies interact through globalization, some cultures may adapt and evolve rapidly, while others may resist change in favor of preserving their unique identities.
cultural lag - a concept referring to the time it takes for a culture to adapt to new technological advancements or social changes, often resulting in disparities between cultural norms and emerging innovations.