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Reconstruction and Freedom

Reconstruction and Freedom

Overview of Reconstruction

  • Timeframe: Post-Civil War (1865) until 1877, marking a critical period in American history aimed at rebuilding the South and integrating formerly enslaved individuals into society.

  • Varied Perspectives: Different demographics had diverse interpretations of Reconstruction and freedom, significantly influencing the policies implemented and their outcomes.

Former Slaves’ Vision

  • Goals:

    • Family Reunification: Many freedmen sought to reunite with family members who had been sold away during slavery.

    • Access to Education: Emphasis on the establishment of schools, as education was seen as essential for achieving true freedom.

    • Importance of Church: The church played a vital role as a community center for former slaves, offering spiritual guidance and social support.

    • Autonomy in Employment: Freed individuals desired the right to choose their work and were often in pursuit of wage labor.

    • Acquisition of Land: Land ownership was viewed as a symbol of freedom and economic independence.

  • Challenges:

    • Land Acquisition:

      • Special Field Order 15 (1865): Issued by General Sherman, this order aimed to allocate land in the Sea Islands and along the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia to formerly enslaved families, giving rise to the phrase "40 acres and a mule."

      • Presidential Intervention: President Andrew Johnson’s intervention quickly reversed these initiatives, restoring property to former Confederate owners and stripping former slaves of their land rights.

      • Sharecropping System: Many former slaves became sharecroppers, paying rent with a portion of their crop yields, which perpetuated cycles of poverty and debt due to exploitative contracts and unfair practices.

Diverse Perspectives on Reconstruction

  • President Johnson's View:

    • Johnson held a limited perspective focused on Southern reunion, prioritizing reconciliation over protections for freedmen, ultimately leading to minimal advancements in civil rights.

  • Republican Vision:

    • The Republican Party, particularly its Radical faction, advocated fiercely for the rights and protections of newly freed slaves, seeking comprehensive civil rights legislation.

  • Congressional Division:

    • The Reconstruction period is divided into Regular Reconstruction (1865-1867) and Radical Reconstruction (1867-1877), highlighting shifts as responses to the obstacles encountered.

Johnson’s Approach to Reconstruction

  • Pardons Issued:

    • Johnson’s policies allowed many white southerners to regain rights upon pledging allegiance to the Union, excluding certain prominent Confederates and wealthy property owners at first.

  • Leadership Resurgence:

    • His appointments often restored leadership among the Confederate elite, leading to an environment rife with violence and intimidation aimed at freed slaves.

  • Republican Alienation:

    • Johnson's approach alienated many in Congress, hindering potential reforms that might have benefited freedmen.

Effects of Johnson’s Policies

  • Black Codes Enacted:

    • These laws imposed strict regulations on former slaves, allowing property ownership and marital rights yet denying voting, jury service, and access to the militia, which reflected the underlying systemic racism.

    • Harsh penalties, including arrest for lacking labor contracts, were enacted to maintain a labor force for the white South.

Republican Legislative Response

  • Goals for Former Slaves:

    • Advocated for the extension of rights, including suffrage for black men, abolishment of Black Codes, and the dissolution of Southern governments under Johnson’s rule.

  • Establishment of Freedman’s Bureau (1865):

    • Aimed to provide education, healthcare, and aid to former slaves and poor whites, despite limited funding and resources.

  • Proposed Civil Rights Bill:

    • This legislation aimed to secure civil rights for all citizens; however, it was met with Johnson's veto, increasing tensions between his administration and Congress.

Ratification of the 14th Amendment

  • 14th Amendment Approved:

    • Ratified in 1868, it granted citizenship to all individuals born in the U.S. and provided equal protection under the law for all citizens, though it did not explicitly guarantee voting rights.

  • Southern Resistance:

    • Many Southern states resisted ratification, with Tennessee being a notable exception, leading to further tensions and divisions.

  • Reconstruction Act (1867):

    • This act divided the South into five military districts, enforcing martial law and promoting black male suffrage, culminating in the election of black officials during Radical Reconstruction.

Key Elections and Amendments

  • 1868 Presidential Election:

    • Ulysses S. Grant won the presidency following promises to support Reconstruction efforts; Rutherford B. Hayes was elected in 1876 during a contentious election.

  • 15th Amendment Ratified (1870):

    • Prohibited voting discrimination based on race but did not extend suffrage to women, causing splits in the suffrage movement.

American Equal Rights Association

  • Formation (1866):

    • Founded by prominent suffragists such as Stanton, Stone, Douglas, and Truth, this organization focused on advocating for both gender and racial equality in the push for voting rights.

  • Campaigns in NY and KS:

    • Campaigns aimed to remove property qualifications that restricted voting rights, highlighting ongoing struggles for inclusivity.

Divisions Within the Suffrage Movement

  • Leadership Shift (1865):

    • Leadership of the movement transitioned from William Lloyd Garrison to Wendell Phillips, with a growing emphasis on male suffrage over female rights.

  • Constitutional Amendments Controversy:

    • The introduction of the term "male" in the 14th Amendment sparked disputes, prioritizing men’s suffrage over women’s rights.

  • Stanton’s Response:

    • Elizabeth Cady Stanton raised concerns that this amendment would perpetuate gender inequality, fighting against its adoption.

Continued Tensions Among Suffragists

  • Stanton's Increasing Racism:

    • Stanton's rhetoric increasingly reflected racial biases, advocating for white women's education to precede granting suffrage to black men, which underscored racial tensions within the movement.

  • Political Alliances:

    • Some suffragists sought alliances with the Democratic Party in efforts to gain support for enfranchisement but faced ethical dilemmas due to the party’s racial positions.

Creation of Two Suffrage Organizations

  • National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA):

    • Formed as an all-female organization focused on achieving women’s rights independent of men; opposed the 15th Amendment unless women were included.

  • American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA):

    • This organization included both men and women, supported the 15th Amendment, while still advocating for women’s suffrage at the state level.

Conclusion of Reconstruction Era

  • Campaign of Terror Against Black Political Rights:

    • The rise of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and other violent groups prompted Congress to adopt the Enforcement Acts, aiming to protect the rights of black citizens.

  • SCOTUS Decisions (1876):

    • The Supreme Court struck down the Enforcement Acts, creating a power vacuum that allowed violence and intimidation against black citizens to escalate.

  • 1877 Compromise:

    • Hayes assumed the presidency amid a compromise that stipulated an end to federal intervention in the South, effectively signaling the conclusion of the Reconstruction era and the return of white supremacy in many areas.