Middle Ages

MIDDLE AGES: POST CAROLINGIAN EUROPE


Feudalism: The word comes from various terms feod/fief/benefice/honor, and it develops as a system during the Carolingian reign. With the breakup into smaller territories after the death of Charlemagne, there are more kings competing for loyal subjects. The kings give lands to knights and lords to reward their service and loyalty. The knights and lords rule these smaller territories for the king in exchange for military support. Eventually these territories are passed down by hereditary succession. Feudalism leads to less centralized control of a kingdom.


Feudalism: Form of government by which political authority was exercised by the landed nobility. Feudalism dominated most of Europe as the land system. Lords and nobility shared power with kings in a symbiotic relationship. The kings needed the financial, land, and military support of the nobles in order to remain king; the nobles needed the kings to grant them title to lands. Although kings were higher in the hierarchy, they could not rule without the nobles.


MIDDLE AGES SOCIETY: Hierarchy of the feudal system = Kings are at the top. Tenants-in-chief are under kings and control manors, but they may control more than one and thus may not always be present. Knights/lords run the manors on a day-to-day basis. Although titles (such as count, baron, duke, etc.) were important, what was more important is the actual ownership of the land. More land equaled more power, regardless of the title the landowner held.


Knights = heavy cavalry; preferred military units in feudal Europe.


Peasants are not slaves, but they are required to work the land and remain tied to the land even if the lord of the land changes.


Manorialism: Agricultural organization of Europe's landed estates, called manors, which became the major economic and social institution of the Middle Ages. Primary economic system of the Middle Ages.


FEUDAL CONTRACT: Vassal gave a pledge of loyalty and an act of homage in a very formalized ceremony. Ceremony was called investiture and vassal was given land to govern and use but not own. Symbolic object, usually a piece of sod, was given during ceremony.


FIEF: A piece of land granted by the king or lord, to somebody in return for service. A fief could be awarded for a variety of reasons to a variety of people. The person who gives the land is called the lord.


VASSAL: Person who received the grant of land. IT WAS POSSIBLE TO BE BOTH A LORD AND A VASSAL!


OBLIGATIONS OF THE FUEDAL CONTRACT:

1. The lord was obligated to protect his vassals.

2. Vassals were obligated to protect the lord and his family and give him advice.



LAW OF PRIMOGENITURE: The feudal contract is passed on to oldest son. Begins in France with Clovis and is transported to England with William the Conqueror.

PEASANT LIFE ON THE MANOR

The majority of manors were like small villages as they created self-contained and independent communities. Besides a manor and/or castle, the estate had simple dwellings for the laborer’s and might also include a small river or stream running through it, a church, mill, barns and an area of woodlands. The typical manor was 30 acres. The land of the estate was divided into two main parts. The first part was the demesne (domain) which was reserved for the exclusive exploitation of the landowner. Typically, the demesne was 35-40% of the total land on the estate. The second part was the land the laborer’s lived and worked on for their own daily needs (mansus= unit of land), typically around 12 acres (5 hectares) per family. The serfs on the estate farmed that land reserved for their use as well as the demesne. Chief function of the manor was to produce food. Rent was paid in cheese, firewood, bread, fish, eggs, etc.


2 types of peasants lived on the manor:

1. freemen: The minority group early freeman lacked opportunities as they were not protected by anyone and thus had to become knights or be reduced to serfdom. Eventually, the medieval term 'freeman' meant someone who was not the property of a feudal lord but enjoyed privileges such as the right to earn money and own land. Town dwellers who were protected by the charter of their town or city were often free. 

2. serfs: The majority group, made up 75% of the medieval population, who were bound to the land and could not be evicted. Serfdom evolved in part from the slavery system of the old Roman Empire. Without much property of their own, the serfs gave up their freedom of movement and their labor in exchange for the benefits of life on the estate of a landowner. Serfs were at the mercy of the lord. Could be punished for any reason! Could only marry within their village. Each peasant had strips of crops in the community fields and possibly a small garden. ** Lord’s first right!


3 FIELD SYSTEM: Two-field system/Three-field system = Advances in agriculture. In the two-field system, half of the land is used for part of the year, while the other half is fallow (unplanted) and recovering. In the second part of the year, the fields are reversed. The same principle is used in the three-field system, only the land is divided into thirds and crops are rotated. This system allows more food to grow, increasing the population. Crops were rotated to protect the soil. Original rotations were done every 7 to 8 years. Corn and wheat were the 2 primary crops. Corn was almost always grown with an auxiliary crop such as peas or beans.


Conflict of what to grow: hay or grain? Grains was used for bread and ale, so it is the primary food source. Hay was necessary for the survival of animals. The problem: Both needed exceptionally fertile soil to grow. Importance of animals in the village: meat, dairy, leather, wool, horsepower, and fertilizer. Manure was valuable for the fertilization process. Lords required peasant animals to

gaze in the lord’s fields. In areas without enough fertilizer, rye was grown instead of grain. Rye was sturdier but was an inferior crop.


Which animal was preferred: horses or cows?


Cows!! Cheaper to feed even though horses were faster. Horses were faster but also more expensive to keep. Used primarily for warfare. Cows generally grazed on common land and pigs were usually allowed to live on their own in the woods. Pigs were lean and thin but hearty and could survive on their own in the winter. Pig was a major part of the village economy. In 1086, the Domesday survey in England described wooded areas by their ability to support pigs.


ROLE OF WOMEN: Continued misogynistic society. They are considered the source of evil. Eve’s original sin in the Garden of Eden. Women were to be subservient to men, thus domestic violence was common. All women are under the control of some man: husband, father, etc.


Peasant women had many domestic responsibilities, including caring for children, preparing food, and tending livestock. During the busiest times of the year, such as the harvest, women often joined their husbands in the field to bring in the crops. Women often participated in vital cottage industries, such as brewing, baking, and manufacturing textiles. 


Noble women held important roles due to husbands being away at court or at war. Women would run the house on these occasions. Some noble women became literate and thus taught their own children to read. Women could inherit and own land. Noble women could be as unrefined as the men: drunkenness and violent toward their servants.


CASTLES: Early castles made of earth and wood, eventually giving way to more elaborate stone versions. Castles are fortified residences, typically for kings, other royalty, or the lords who rule territory on behalf of the kings. Castles are often situated in military advantageous places, such as on hills or near river crossings. Not all castles are spectacular places, some are merely fortified manor houses such as this one. The need for castles comes from the threats of potential invaders such as the Moors/Muslims or the Vikings, but also from rival kings.


REVIVAL OF TRADE IN EUROPE

Trade in western Europe had declined and reached its low point in the 9th century due to:

1. Muslim control of the western Mediterranean, including the coasts of North Africa and Spain. 2. Viking Raids along the coast.


Revival of trade began in Italy in the city of Venice. They traded grain, wine, and lumber to Constantinople in exchange for manufactured goods. A reconquest of the Mediterranean waters was led by Genoa and Pisa in an effort to expand markets for woven cloth. The Crusades opened new trade routes between Italy and the Middle East creating trade for silk, sugar, and spices. The

Crusades also increased the connections between cultures. In Europe, results of these connections include increased demand for trade for luxury goods with the Middle East, changes in customs (hand washing, for example), changes in fashion, and new trends in education.


Flanders in the north played the same role as Venice. They were famous for their woolen cloth, which they traded up and down the Rhine River. With the decline of the Vikings in the 10th century, Flanders could not keep up with the demand for their product. They had to bring in wool from other areas. England soon became the chief wool producing region in Europe. Wool and other products soon flooded into Flanders to be traded for woven cloth.


Wine production also played a role in the economic growth of England. The Norman kings of England preferred wine to ale and soon France was exporting wine in large amounts.

Flanders and Venice were prosperous trading cities but initially did not trade with each other very much due to the reasons mentioned above.


TRADE FAIRS: Trade fairs also revitalized economics in Europe. They were essentially wholesale markets. The largest and most significant were held around the city of Champagne 6 times a year. The Champagne fairs were an annual cycle of trade fairs which flourished in different towns of the county of Champagne in northeastern France in the 12th and 13th centuries, originating in local agricultural and stock fairs. Each fair lasted about 2 to 3 weeks. Fairs of this time were specially designated occasions for trade in goods not otherwise easily acquired (such as imported goods). Both the craftsman and the lords made money. The lords made a profit by:

A. Charging rent for booth. B. Sales tax on goods sold. C. Penalties for offense vs. fair.


The fairs gave rise to the use of money. The preferable coinage in Europe was gold. The fairs at Champagne were so successful that soon all nobles wanted one. The importance of the fair declined as more trade routes opened throughout Europe.


Banking is an example of a new service that emerges, specifically the practice of lending money in return for interest (as in a loan). The Church considered this practice “usury” – a sin. Jewish bankers did not have the religious prohibition against usury, thus dominated banking in this era. During the time of the Crusades, banking and loans became common.


REVIVAL OF URBAN LIFE AND GROWTH OF TOWNS: Merchants and craftsmen would settle near a castle for protection. Access to trade routes was also important. Lords encouraged the craftsmen to come as the brought people into the lord’s domain. Traders were generally wanderers who settled in the villages during the winter. Settlements were called burghers. Burghers = townspeople. “Burgh” is a Saxon word meaning “fortified settlement” and those who live in Burghs are Burghers. Townspeople were subject to more liberties than agrarian people, but townspeople are still the minority of the population. By the end of the 11th century the craftsmen and merchants began to approach the lords with requests for certain freedoms in order to do business. These freedoms were usually acquired by use of a large monetary bribe. The freedoms included the following:

A. Wanted to be freemen who owned property. B. Wanted to be able to pay rent with money. C. Protection against arbitrary seizure of property.


Town charters were created to insure the rights of the people. These charters often included the right to form guilds. Guild essentially created a monopoly for that particular item in that town. Guilds are medieval trade associations (somewhat like today’s unions). The craftsmen of a particular trade (like tanners or blacksmiths, for example) band together in guilds to protect their interests against outsiders and competitors. The craft guilds directed almost every aspect of an items production: A. Standards of quality. B. Specific methods of production.

C. Fixed the prices of goods. D. Fixed number of people who could enter the trade.

E. Guilds also had social responsibilities such as: caring for widows and orphans of their members.

You became part of a guild by:

A. Apprentice at age 10. 7 years. B Journeyman could work and receive wages.

C. Creation of masterpiece, Examined and approved by other masters. Otherwise, journeyman for life. Master’s made it difficult for others to become a master.


EXAMPLE OF A GUILD: By the late 14th century, Lavenham was at the center of the East Anglian woolen cloth trade. Its specialized production of woad-dyed broadcloth, known as Lavenham Blue, had made it one of the richest towns in England. This wealth was the catalyst for four guilds being established in the town by the local merchant families: the most important of these was the Guild of Corpus Christi formed in 1529. The guild established their guildhall at around that time; the design made extensive use of jettied timber framing and featured a gabled porch projecting from the center of the building on the north-west elevation. See PPT for image.

Recovering from the European Dark ages, cities of the 12th century are no longer just fortresses or residences for bishops. Cities now present opportunities for trade and are generally outside of the control of feudal lords.


EDUCATION

Scholasticism = the system of theology and philosophy taught in medieval European universities, based on Aristotelian logic and the writings of the early Church Fathers and having a strong emphasis on tradition and dogma. Primary goal was to reconcile faith and reason to demonstrate that what was accepted on faith was in harmony with what could be learned by reason.

St Thomas Aquinas is an example of the scholasticism movement. Aquinas writes Summa Theologica (“Summation of Theology”), an attempt to prove the existence of God using logic and theology.


Roger Bacon (c. 1214 – 1294), was one of the most famous Franciscan friars of his time. He was an English philosopher who called for the reform of theological study, the study of foreign languages, and the integration of scientific study to the normal university curriculum. He placed considerable emphasis on empiricism and has been presented as one of the earliest

advocates of the modern scientific method in the West, though later studies have emphasized his reliance on occult and alchemical traditions. He was intimately acquainted with Aristotelian logic and philosophy, mathematics, and optics, much of it via the Arab world. Thus, he served as a precursor for the reconciliation of science and religion through his call for academic development and reform of the Church in the study of scripture and science.


Literature: The introduction of the use of vernacular, which is the language of everyday people. Most famous author: Geoffrey Chaucer who wrote the Canterbury Tales an ambitious collection of stories in a range of poetic (and in one case, prose) forms. It imagines a group of 31 pilgrims who meet while travelling to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury. To pass the time, they decide to tell two tales to the assembled company on the journey there and the journey home. This extraordinary work, which presents a portrait of late medieval Britain with humor and tragedy, was left unfinished when Chaucer died in 1400.



UNIVERSITIES: Universities grew out of schools attached to churches, usually cathedrals.  Men who wanted some sort of education but who did not want to go into the church could and did attend the same schools where cathedrals trained boys who would grow up to be priests.  These schools attracted teachers who might, if they had an excellent reputation, attract students from all over Europe.  Soon the schools, or at least the more advanced courses, were separated off from the cathedral schools to become universities, though the bishop generally felt he needed to keep an eye on them. First European university was founded in 1088 at Bologna, Italy. Different universities specialized in different advanced areas of study.  Bologna was the center for law. Paris was the center for theology, the study of religion.  Montpellier and Salerno focused on medicine.  The two English universities, Oxford and Cambridge, both founded in the thirteenth century, did a little of everything. Students paid teachers directly, with teachers charging by the lecture. In some instances, women received private educations at home from tutors (usually people who also taught at universities).


HELOISE & ABELARD: One example of home tutoring gone awry is Abelard (teacher) and Heloise (student). Abelard is a University of Paris teacher with aspirations in the clergy. However, he engages in an affair with his student, Heloise, who ends up pregnant.

GROWTH AND EMERGENCE OF CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES: Religious ceremonies marked all important events in a person’s life: 1. BIRTH 2. MARRIAGE 3. DEATH

Most monks entered the monastic orders for religious reasons, but some did not. Monasteries were a refuge for: 1. UNMARRIED DAUGHTERS, 2. WIDOWS, 3. YOUNGEST SON WITHOUT AN INHERITANCE.

Main form of justice was the ecclesiastical court, which handled moral cases such as fornication

and adultery. The court also decided questions of marriage, legitimacy, and wills. Responsible for all cases involving clergyman including complaints filed outside the order.

PROBLEMS OF THE CHURCH/ CONFLICT BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE: The wealthy gave large amounts of money to the church to: 1. SAFEGUARD THEIR SOULS. 2. SAFEGUARD THEIR RELATIVES SOULS. Main issue is the mixture of the church and secular society. Noblemen gave land to the monasteries, and in exchange controlled them by appointing their own abbots. Monasteries accepted these gifts because the noblemen provided them with protection. Kings appointed higher church officials such as bishops. The great wealth of the church becomes a significant issue!


LAY INVESTITURE: During this time, the clergy is turning into feudal nobility as well. Clergy are rewarded for their cooperation with kings; in exchange, kings appoint some bishops (rather than bishops being appointed by other clergy). This is lay investiture. The problem that was created was that in many cases the monastery had 2 leaders:

1. Nobles choice (lay investiture) & 2. The church’s choice

Many church officials had cooperated with the noblemen for 2 reasons: 1. DID NOT WISH TO ANGER THE NOBLES OR LORDS WHO PROTECTED THEM

2. MANY HAD LITTLE RELIGIOUS FEELING

THE CLUNY REFORMS: Changes to the monastic system began in the 900’s. Duke William of Aquitaine founded a monastery at Cluny. The purpose of this monastery was to provide general monastic reform. The reforms oppose secular or government influence on the church, such as kings appointing church officials. The result of Duke William’s efforts was called the Cluny reforms. The two main outcomes of these reforms were:

1. MONKS SPENDING MORE TIME ON CHURCH WORK

2. HAVING ONLY 1 ABBOTT AS THE HEAD OF THE MONASTERY

The reforms are initially supported by Emp. Henry III and Pope Leo IX (ironically, a pope appointed by the king – the kind of action the reforms were against). These reforms were successful and soon spread throughout all of Europe.

Great Schism (1054): A “schism” or disagreement develops in the Church. Some clergy challenge the authority of the Pope over the Cluny reforms. Some kings want to continue appointing Church officials. The impact of the Great Schism was the final split between the Orthodox Church in the east and the Roman Catholic Church in the west.


CONCORDAT OF WORMS: Concordat of Worms (1122): An agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V on September 23, 1122, that found a resolution to the Investiture Controversy. They agreed that Church clergy will elect bishops freely, but in the physical view of the emperor. Bishops will receive the symbolic possessions of their office (hats, robes, staffs, etc.) from other Church officials; Bishops receive feudal (land) possession directly from the emperor. In this way, the powers and rewards of becoming bishop are kept in separate spheres (a separation of church and state). SEE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE BELOW!


HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE:

OTTO THE GREAT: Otto I the Great (936-973) = German king who became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto raised a great military and defeated invading Magyars at the famous battle of Lechfeld. He then invaded Italy, which many historians consider an act that shows his love of conquest. Another argument would be that Otto’s southern expansion was strictly defensive as the area of Lombardy lacked a strong leader and was thus open to any German prince who would attempt to take it. As a conqueror of Italy, Otto fused the German and Italian territories together as the Holy Roman Empire and was crowned by the Pope.


OTTO III: Otto III (r. 983-1002): Only 3 years old when he became king! Devout German king who was able to spread the primacy of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto then proceeded to make Rome his official residence and the administrative center of the empire. He instituted elaborate Byzantine court ceremonies and reviving ancient Roman customs, he assumed the titles “the servant of Jesus Christ,” “the servant of the apostles,” and “emperor of the world” and saw himself as the leader of world Christianity. Spread German influence and Christianity to places such as Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, by making local leader’s vassals under the dominion of Otto III and future Germany kings.


HENRY III (r. 1039-1056): Supporter of the Cluniac reforms, he welcomed representatives of the reform movement and aided them in their efforts to reform German monasteries. PROBLEM = The Cluny reforms called for separation of church and state. The governing policy of Henry III and his HRE predecessors was to treat German church officials as government officials and to expect their obedience and loyalty. Henry III supported the Cluny reforms but also laid the groundwork for serious future conflict between the church and state.


HENRY IV (r. 1056-1105): Became king as a child and the nobility took advantage of his youth, seizing more power. Henry was kidnapped as a child, by a powerful church official and almost drowned trying to escape! As an adult, Henry IV wanted to regain power for the kingship. Henry IV used his influence on the Church as a weapon against his opponents (the lords and nobility), turning bishops and clergy against them. Henry IV comes into conflict with the ne Pope Gregory VII, who was German. Gregory VII believed in the concept that the king was God’s vice-regent appointed to rule over man and thus directly responsible to God. The king must maintain order and see that the commands of the church were obeyed, and if he didn’t, he could be removed. Gregory VII reinforced the Cluny reforms by excommunicating Henry IV for interfering in Church affairs. This led to the famous “penance of Canossa”, when Henry IV stood outside the Pope’s palace for 3 days in the snow! In turn, German bishops controlled by Henry IV declare the Gregory VII illegitimate. This split signals the beginning of ongoing civil wars and conflicts that undermine the power of the German monarchy.


HENRY V (r. 1106-1125): Resolutions to the investiture conflict proposed throughout the decades of conflict hinged on the division between the spiritual and secular roles of bishops. Negotiations

between the two factions gained ground in 1121, and the compromise eventually known as the Concordat of Worms was finalized in 1122. SEE CONCORDAT OF WORMS ABOVE! While the emperor remained powerful following the Concordat, his influence over church affairs was significantly limited. The bishops became vassals of local dukes and kings, rather than direct appointees of the emperor. As a result, ecclesiastical property within the empire became bound to the feudal system and respective regional rulers instead of the imperial throne. This change benefitted the many dukes and lords, who gained the ecclesiastical property within their realm once held by the emperor. The imperial nobility and feudal princes also became responsible for holding future emperors to the terms of the agreement.


RISE OF THE ENGLISH MONARCHY

THE NORMANS:

WILLIAM THE CONQUERER (r.1066-1086): William (French) conquered England and brings new institutional developments. He imports French feudalism to England. The English form of feudalism is slightly different in that feudal lords could not gain the same kind of power; only collectively could feudal lords challenge the king’s authority.


Domesday Book = William orders a census of each county under his control so that he knew how much he could tax his subjects. The census recorded the holdings and possessions of each person in the Domesday Book. William died before completion, but was completed by his successor his son William II, known as Rufus! The project indicates a shift towards more direct control of his subjects by the king.


HENRY I: (r. 1100-1135) Becomes king when his unpopular older brother is “accidently” killed while hunting. Henry I continued many of his brothers unpopular policies but was a far more effective ruler and administrator. Additional institutional ideas emerge from Henry I, who created the position of exchequer, an office that kept track of every piece of revenue in the royal coffers. Europe now has accountants!


PLANTAGENET DYNASTY: Starts with Henry II. The Plantagenet dynasty ruled England for over three hundred years, from 1154 -1485. They were a remarkable family, providing England with fourteen of its kings. The surname Plantagenet, which was to become one of the most famous in England, seems to have derived from a nickname adopted by Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, the father of Henry II and refers to his habit of wearing a sprig of broom or planta genista in his helmet.


HENRY II (r.1154-1189): Henry II, the grandson of Henry I, first instituted the idea of common law. In France, feudal lords handed out justice. But in England starting with Henry II, only special royally appointed persons could do this. In theory, common law is applied equally throughout the kingdom. Henry II is considered one of England’s greatest kings due to his contribution of JUDICIAL REFORMS.

1. EXTENDED AUTHORITY OF ROYAL COURTS.

2. COMMON LAW CREATED.

3. USE OF 12 MEN JURIES.


Henry II also married Eleanor of Aquitaine, a rich French heiress, a move that transferred significant land possessions to Henry II and England. Henry II’s territory now included Scotland, England, and significant portions of France.


Thomas Becket Scandal: Thomas Becket: King Henry II appointed his close friend Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury (the highest religious office in England) in hopes that the king could control the Church. Once in office, however, Becket proved a supporter of Church authority. Several of Henry II’s supporters murdered Becket in Canterbury Cathedral, causing Henry II great embarrassment, a formal public apology, and ending any chance Henry had of ever influencing Church affairs. The Pope made Becket a saint.


KING JOHN (r.1199-1216): John I (LACKLAND, SOFTSWORD) The younger brother of Richard the Lionheart, is considered the worst king in English history.

He was defeated in his 3 major conflicts:

1. War with France: WAR WITH KING PHILIP OF FRANCE. BY 1214, HAD LOST MOST OF ENGLANDS LAND IN FRANCE.


2. Conflict with the Pope: A. DISPUTED ELECTION OF NEW ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY.

B. POPE INNOCENT III AUTHORZED PHILIP TO INVADE ENGLAND AND DESPOSE JOHN.

C. JOHN GIVES IN AND RECOGNIZES ENGLAND AND IRELAND AS FIEFS TO THE POPE.


3. Magna Carta: John was forced to sign by the English Barons. (1215). It created 3 aspects of English law:

1. Taxation by consent. 2. Fair trial. 3. Representative government.

MAGNA CARTA: The Magna Carta represents additional institutional changes. English King John wanted to protect his subjects from the rule of feudal lords, but the lords opposed King John’s power. The lords banded together to force King John to sign the Magna Carta, a document limiting the king’s authority and ability to tax), and granting special rights to the lords. Many basic rights recognized by today’s governments originate in the Magna Carta, including the right to a jury by your peers if accused of a crime. These rights were originally only for the lords/nobility, not commoners – many years later these rights trickle down to common people. King John had no intention of honoring the Magna Carta and had it declared void by the Pope!


EDWARD I (r. 1272-1307): The English King Edward I (known as Edward Longshanks due to his height) struggled to raise funds during his reign as a result of numerous military expeditions including a crusade, wars with France, Wales, and Scotland. He tried to tax the Church in order to fund an invasion of Scotland, an idea that almost him excommunicated. In response, Edward I gathered influential clergy, nobles, and townspeople and began the Parliament, an attempt to gain

public favor for his tax requests. The original Parliament served as a body to approve or disapprove royal requests for taxes. The Model Parliament met for the first time in 1295 CE which had members from the clergy and knights as well as large estate owners, including two representatives from every shire and town (or borough). Membership of the parliament was still only given to those with wealth, but it was wider than ever before as Edward sought the best possible means to secure support for his greater revenue demands. The parliament also approved Edward's proposed military campaign in Scotland. The king might not have had any interest in limiting his own power or increasing that of the elite but his regular calling of parliament for the purposes of raising taxes nevertheless did kickstart the body as an ever-present institution in English government which acquired a character and precedence of its own. The inclusion of wealthy but untitled members was the beginning of what would become the House of Commons.

Another consequence of the need for funds was the attack on the kingdom's Jewish community. In 1287 CE Edward happily began to expel all Jews from his kingdom, confiscating their property to boost his war coffers and appease the Church who regarded the moneylenders as a threat. By 1290 CE, the policy resulted in almost all 2,000 Jews in the kingdom leaving, one way or another, and Edward was so pleased with his policy that he repeated it in Gascony.

FRANCE:

Capetians: Hugh Capet (r. 987 to 996) was originally a feudal lord in France with large land holdings. In order to become recognized as king, he gave much of his lands to other lords in order to gain recognition as king. In surrendering his lands for the kingship, he also surrendered much of his personal power. Hugh Capet’s story shows the problems in the hierarchy system; the kings need the lords and the lords need the kings. Hugh Capet crossed up the nobility by immediately naming his son as co-ruler, making the crown hereditary based on primogeniture.


PHILIP II AUGUSTUS (r.1180 – 1223): France rebounds in power under Philip II Augustus. When the English King John fought his own nephew for control of England, Philip II Augustus supported the nephew (Arthur). When John killed Arthur, Phillip and John went to war. Phillip II wins the war, regaining much French territory formerly governed by England.


BATTLE OF BOUVINES: The Battle of Bouvines, fought on 27 July 1214, was one of the most influential battles in European history, directing the fate of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire and the Angevin dominions. In England, it was to lead to Magna Carta. Since 1204, when Philip Augustus had won Normandy from King John, the English king had worked relentlessly to raise the funds needed to reverse his losses. His demands pushed his subjects to the brink of rebellion. Defeat at Bouvines sealed King Philip’s hold on Normandy and feulled opposition to John’s rule in England. In Sir James Holt’s words, ‘the road from Bouvines to Runnymede was direct, short, and unavoidable.’


PHILIP II ACCOMPLISHMENTS: Began general expansion of French royal authority. Created baillies which were the French equivalent of the English position of sheriff, an office that helped administer local territories of the kingdom. Began the building of the Louvre and founded the University of Paris in 1200. He was also responsible for the ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE.

The Albigensians (also called Cathars) lived in the French region of Toulouse where they practiced a heretical form of Christianity (one that did not meet with official Church orthodoxy). Pope Innocent III and King Philip II Augustus target the Albigensians/Cathars for persecution, putting the Dominicans (a Catholic religious order) in charge of spreading the correct Church teachings and weeding out heresy. The campaign against the Albigensians/Cathars is the precursor to a larger persecution of heretics, “The Inquisition.”


LOUIS IX “ST. LOUIS”(r. 1226-1270): Considered most chivalrous monarch of his age, he gained fame for judicial reform to secure justice for rich and poor. He was the 1st French king to issue laws for the whole country based solely on his authority. Louis IX detested feudal warfare and eventually outlawed all private wars. He died while on the 8th Crusade of dysentery/typhus.


PHILIP IV “THE FAIR”(r. 1285-1314): In France, Philip IV did relatively the same thing as Edward I did in forming the Parliament – Philip formed the Estates General to gather support for his policies. Philip needed money to fight a war, so he called Estates General seeking national support in a struggle against the church over taxation of the clergy. It was the first time the Estates General had been called.


Estates General = France’s representative body made up of the 3 social classes:

1st Estate = Nobility

2nd Estate = clergy

3rd Estate = peasants/ commoners


Philip suffered from financial issues throughout his reign. He established 2 solutions for his financial problems:


1. Arrested Jews, took their property, and drove them out of France. (usury)

2. Persecuted and destroyed the Knights Templar claiming their treasury in 1312.