Page 2: Introduction to Biology

• Biology is the study of the functions and structure of living organisms based on observations.

Page 3: Cell Theory

• Cell theory is a guide in learning and understanding biology.

• It explains the functions and structure of cells based on observations.

Page 4: Zacharias Janssen

• Zacharias Janssen was one of the pioneers in the development of the early microscope and telescope in the early 16th century.

Page 6: Robert Hooke

• Robert Hooke was a premier scientist who first used the microscope to observe minute living cells and recorded his observations in a compilation.

Page 10: Discovery of the Microscope

• Zacharias Janssen is credited with the invention of the microscope in the late 16th century.

• The microscope has been beneficial to every major field of science.

Page 11: Robert Hooke and the Cell Theory

• In 1665, Robert Hooke published "Micrographia," a book with drawings and descriptions of organisms viewed under the microscope.

• Hooke's observations of box-shaped structures in cork led to the discovery of cells.

• This discovery led to the development of the classical cell theory.

Page 12: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered the father of microbiology.

• He discovered protists and bacteria using microscopes he made with a single high-quality lens.

Page 13: Development of the Cell Theory

• In the 19th century, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed that cells were the basic unit of structure and function in all living things.

• Rudolf Virchow observed that cells divide to produce more cells and proposed that all cells arise from other cells.

Page 14: The Cell Theory

• The original cell theory proposes that all organisms are made up of one or more cells, all life functions occur within cells, and all cells come from preexisting cells.

Page 15: Modern Cell Theory

• All known living things are made up of one or more cells.

• All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.

• The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.

• The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

• Energy flow occurs within cells.

• Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) passed from cell to cell during division.

• Cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

Page 18: Cell Structure and Functions

• Every organ in the body and in plants is composed of smaller parts called tissues.

• Tissues are groups of like cells that perform specific functions.

Page 20: Primary Components of a Cell

• The cell membrane acts as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to pass through.

• The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane.

• Other components or organelles found in the cytoplasm include mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and ribosomes.

Page 22: The Nucleus

• The nucleus is the most important component of the living cell.

• It is located in the center of the cell and is usually spherical in shape.

• The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane known as the nuclear membrane.

Page 24: Functions of the Cell - Structure and Support

• Cells provide the structural basis of all organisms.

• Certain cells, such as collenchyma and sclerenchyma, offer structural support.

Page 27: Functions of the Cell - Growth

• Cells are responsible for the growth of organisms through the process of mitosis.

Page 31: Functions of the Cell - Transport

• Cells import nutrients and get rid of waste through passive and active transport.

Page 33: Functions of the Cell - Energy Production

• Plants obtain energy through photosynthesis, while animals obtain energy through respiration.

Page 36: Functions of the Cell - Metabolism

• Cells are responsible for all the chemical reactions that take place inside an organism to keep it alive.

Page 40: Functions of the Cell - Reproduction

• Cells help in reproduction through the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

Page 42: Difference between Plant Cells and Animal Cells

• Plant cells have a cell wall, while animal cells only have a cell membrane.

• Plant cells have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

• Plant cells have a larger vacuole compared to animal cells.

• Animal cells are irregular in shape, while plant cells are more structured due to the presence of a cell wall.

Page 43: Reminders

• Follow instructions from the teacher.

• Make use of materials and references.

• Check mylpu.edu for PowerPoint presentations and activities.

Page 44:

Cell Wall

• Surrounds the cell membrane for additional protection in plant cells

• Made up of cellulose

• Provides structure and support for plant cells

• Examples of organisms with cell walls: plants, fungi, protists, and most bacteria

• Three layers of a cell wall:

  • Primary Cell Wall: Contains cellulose layer, divides and grows cells

  • Secondary Cell Wall: Synthesized in specialized cells, contains treachery elements and fibers

  • Middle Lamella: Acts as a layer of cement between neighboring cells

Chloroplast

• Organelle found in plant cells that absorbs solar light

• Functions as the cell's food producer through photosynthesis

• Generates energy and produces active substances like amino acids and vitamins

• Chloroplasts are a form of plastid involved in food synthesis and storage

• Distinguished by the presence of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, giving them a green color

• Seven parts of a chloroplast:

  1. Inner membrane: Controls flow of materials, synthesizes fatty acids and lipids

  2. Outer membrane: Semi-porous, permeable to small molecules and ions

  3. Stoma lamella: Keeps grana at a distance for increased synthesis efficiency

  4. Thylakoid: Traps light energy and converts it into ATP and NADPH

  5. Granum: Increases surface area of thylakoids for more light absorption

  6. Stroma: Alkaline, protein-rich fluid within the inner membrane

  7. Intermembrane Space: Thin space between outer and inner membrane

Cellular membrane

1. Endocytosis: Process of taking in materials or molecules from the exterior to the interior of the cell

   • Phagocytosis: Absorbing large particles like bacteria and damaged cells

   • Pinocytosis: Taking in materials or molecules from extracellular fluid

2. Exocytosis: Process of transporting materials or molecules from the interior to the exterior of the cell

Page 45:

• Exocytosis is important for waste removal and cell membrane functions

• Regulated exocytosis is forced by extracellular signals

• Primary components of a cell membrane: lipids, proteins, and carbohydrate groups

• Lipids play major roles in membrane organization and function

• Phospholipids form a semi-permeable barrier in the cell membrane

• Cholesterol helps stabilize the cell membrane and control what can pass through it

• Proteins are the second major component of the cell membrane

• Peripheral membrane proteins interact with other proteins on the exterior of the membrane

• Integral membrane proteins are integrated into the membrane and exposed to both sides

• Transmembrane proteins extend across the entire membrane

• Specific types of proteins in the cell membrane:

  • Structural proteins provide support and structure

  • Receptor proteins communicate with other cells using signaling molecules

  • Transport proteins facilitate the movement of molecules across the membrane

  • Glycoproteins have carbohydrate chains and aid in cell-to-cell communication and recognition

Page 46

Golgi Complex, Apparatus, Body

• Responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles

• Creates complex polysaccharides

• Receives cargoes synthesized in the Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Processes cargoes mainly by glycosylation

• Sorts cargoes to correct destinations in the cell

• Protein processing: alters carbohydrate regions of glycoproteins

• Lipid processing: adds phosphate groups and glycoproteins to lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum

3 Primary Components of Golgi Complex

1. Cis-Golgi (Nearest the endoplasmic reticulum)

   • Faces the nucleus

   • Connects with the endoplasmic reticulum

   • Entry point into the Golgi apparatus

2. Medial-Golgi (Central layer)

   • Major processing area allowing biochemical modifications

3. Trans-Golgi (Farthest from the endoplasmic reticulum)

   • Exit point for vesicles budding off the Golgi surface

   • Packages and sorts biochemical into vesicles according to their destination

NUCLEUS

• "CONTROL CENTER" of the cell

• Composed of a nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleolus, nucleoplasm, nuclear lamina, and chromatin

Parts of the Nucleus

• Outer nuclear membrane: continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum

• Inner nuclear membrane: carries unique proteins specific to the nucleus

• Nuclear pores: protein-lined channels that regulate transportation between the nucleus and cytoplasm

• Nucleolus: produces and assembles the cell's ribosomes

• Ribosomes: cellular machinery responsible for making proteins

• Nucleoplasm: viscous fluid that contains DNA-based chromatin

• Nuclear lamina: complex protein mesh attached to the inner nuclear membrane

• Chromatin: mixture of DNA and proteins that form the chromosomes

Page 47

Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Sac-like structure with interconnected membranes

• Performs functions such as calcium storage, protein synthesis, and lipid metabolism

• Important in the synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of proteins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

• Synthesizes steroid hormones

• Catalyzes reactions that detoxify the body

• Contributes to glucose production in the liver

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Site of protein synthesis

• Plays a key role in sorting proteins destined for various organelles or outside of the cell

Page 48: Cytoplasm

• Cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell that provides movement for dissolved molecules and is the medium for chemical reactions.

  • It offers a foundation for other organelles to function within the cell.

  • All processes for cell division, growth, and replication take place in the cytoplasm.

• Cytoplasm is made up of three components: Cytosol, Organelles, and Cytoplasmic Inclusions.

  • Cytosol is the area of the cytoplasm not filled by an organelle and works as a fluid medium.

  • Organelles are tiny structures suspended in the cytoplasm that have individual structures and roles.

  • Cytoplasmic Inclusions are insoluble particles suspended in the cytosol that store energy and granules.

Page 48: Cytoplasmic Streaming

• Cytoplasmic streaming, also known as protoplasmic streaming, is the movement of the cytoplasmic fluid within a cell.

Page 48: Mitochondria

• Mitochondria are double-membraned, rod-shaped structures found in both plant and animal cells.

• They are often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.

• Mitochondria have different parts, including the outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, cristae, and mitochondrial matrix.

Page 48: Centrosomes

• Centrosomes are membrane-free organelles that serve as the main organizer of the microtubule cytoskeleton in animals and some eukaryotic lineages.

• Despite their structural diversity, centrosomes are functionally equivalent and share molecular components.

• Centrosomes are involved in cell division, microtubule organization, and cell shape.

Page 48: Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.

• They contain enzymes that oxidize certain molecules, producing hydrogen peroxide.

• Peroxisomes play important roles in cellular metabolism, detoxification, and photorespiration.

Page 52: Cell Organelles

• Organelles are the little workhouses within the cell where all the functions of life take place.

• Organelles can be released by breaking the plasma membrane and can be separated based on size and density.

Page 53: Cell Wall

• The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of plant cells and provides strength and protection against stress.

• It allows cells to develop turgor pressure and helps maintain water balance.

Page 55: Chloroplast

• Chloroplasts are responsible for carrying out photosynthesis and producing organic molecules for plants and algae.

• They also produce amino acids and lipid components necessary for chloroplast membrane production.

Page 56: Vacuole

• Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles found in animal and plant cells.

• In animal cells, vacuoles help sequester waste products, while in plant cells, they help maintain water balance.

Page 57: Endoplasmic Reticulum

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membrane system that produces proteins for the cell.

• The rough ER has ribosomes on its surface, while the smooth ER synthesizes lipids and performs detoxification.

Page 60: Golgi Body

• The Golgi body functions as a factory where proteins received from the ER are further processed and sorted for transport.

Page 62: Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell that provides a platform for chemical reactions and the functioning of organelles.

• All cell expansion, growth, and replication occur in the cytoplasm.

Page 63: Mitochondria

• Mitochondria are responsible for oxidative phosphorylation, which generates ATP for energy.

• ATP is used as the primary energy source for biochemical and physiological processes.

Page 65: Centrioles

• Centrioles are paired barrel-shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm of animal cells.

• They play a role in organizing microtubules and determining the locations of the nucleus and other organelles.

Page 66: Ribosomes

• Ribosomes function as micro-machines for making proteins.

• They are composed of special proteins and nucleic acids and are involved in the translation of information and the linking of amino acids.

Page 67: Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are organelles that sequester diverse oxidative reactions.

  • They play important roles in metabolism, reactive oxygen species detoxification, and signaling.

• Oxidative pathways housed in peroxisomes include fatty acid β-oxidation.

  • Fatty acid β-oxidation contributes to embryogenesis, seedling growth, and stomatal opening.

Page 68: Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles found in every eukaryotic cell.

• They are known as terminal catabolic stations.

  • Lysosomes rid cells of waste products and scavenge metabolic building blocks.

• Lysosomes sustain essential biosynthetic reactions during starvation.

Page 69: Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia and flagella have different functions.

  • Cilia move water relative to the cell in a regular movement.

    • This can result in the cell moving through the water or moving water and its contents across the surface of the cell.

Page 70: Bacterial Flagella Arrangement

• Bacteria are classified into four groups based on their flagella arrangement.

  • Monotrichous: Having one flagellum.

  • Amphitrichous: Single flagellum at both ends.

  • Lophotrichous: Numerous flagella as a tuft.

  • Peritrichous: Flagella distributed all over the cell except at the poles.

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Page 72: Reminders

• Instructions for students:

  1. Listen to instructions from the teacher.

  2. Make use of the materials and references.

  3. Work accordingly.

  4. Check mylpu.edu for PowerPoint presentations and activities