Notes on the Early Middle Ages and the Crusades

After Rome: The Early Middle Ages

Western Roman Empire falls; Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire continues.
Migration Period leads to barbarian kingdoms (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals); Christianity remains central to identity and state.
The era sets the stage for feudalism, manorialism, and the Christianization of Europe.

Old English, Middle English, and Modern English illustrate language evolution; excerpts show shifting forms of Psalm 23 across eras.
The Cyrillic alphabet originates from Cyril and Methodius; used in Kievan Rus and Eastern Europe.
Language changes reflect broader cultural and religious transformations across Europe.

1054: The Great Schism splits Christianity into Catholic (West) and Orthodox (East).
Orthodox Christianity links with the Byzantine Empire; Caesaropapism (emperor as head of church) influences church-state relations.
Early conversions of Slavic regions; missionary work by Cyril and Methodius.

Viking home-land expansion into Europe and beyond; Norwegians, Danes, and others.
Settlements: Iceland, Greenland; possible contact with North America (Vinland).
The Northern Arc and river trade connected Europe with the Middle East and Asia; role in early state formation (e.g., Kievan Rus).

The Feudal Pyramid: King → Nobles → Knights (vassals) → Peasants (landholders and peasants) with lands (fiefs) exchanged for protection and military service.
The Lords of the manor and the concept of land-based power underpin the social order.
The Castle: defensive and elite residence; components include Motte-and-bailey, Keep, Gatehouse, Curtain Wall, Well.
The Manor Economy (Manorialism): lord’s manor as the basic economic unit; peasants farm, mill, and rely on local resources; wool, bread, tools produced locally; church sits on lord’s land.

Titles and roles: Pope, Cardinal, Archbishop, Bishop, Priest.
The Church’s power intersects with rulers and daily life; church organization mirrors political geography (territory-based offices).

Key hierarchy: Emperor/King, Grand Duke/ Duke, Earl/ Count, Viscount, Baron, Lord; territorial designations (Empire, Kingdom, Principality, Duchy, County, etc.).
Land ownership (fiefs) underpins political authority and loyalty networks.

Fortified residences symbolize elite power and military control.
Features: Keep, Curtain Wall, Gatehouse, Turret, Well; early wooden motte-and-bailey castles later replaced by stone castles.

Background: Muslim control of the Holy Land; Byzantine request for aid; Pope Urban II calls for crusade.
The First Crusade: 1095-1101; Jerusalem captured in 1099; Crusader states established (e.g., Kingdom of Jerusalem).
The Second Crusade: 1147-1149; Edessa conquest in 1144; limited Western success.
The Third Crusade: 1189-1192; Saladin reconquers Jerusalem (1187); leaders include Philip II, Richard I, Frederick I; truce with Saladin in 1192.
The Fourth Crusade: 1202-1204; diverted to Constantinople; sacking of the city deepens East–West split.
Other campaigns: Christian campaigns in Spain and the Baltic during the period.

Trade revival: contact with India and the Middle East brings new goods (sugar, coffee, tea, lemons).
Italian city-states lead in trade; towns and guilds re-emerge; merchant class grows; social mobility increases via apprenticeships.
Cultural and linguistic impact: borrowings from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Indian languages (examples: Avatar, Coffee, Cotton, Lemon, etc.).
Prejudice and anti-Semitism rise; violence against Jews and accusations of witchcraft rise.

The Crusades push Europe into the High Middle Ages: urbanization, trade, and guilds expand; castles and feudal structures persist.
Social mobility reappears via guilds and manuals; educated elites and artisans gain new roles.
The era prompts broader inquiry into religion, politics, and the world beyond Christendom.