Memory

Memory Processes

• Encoding: puts information into the memory system

• Storage: the retention of the encoded information

• Retrieval: getting the information out of memory and back into awareness

Automatic and Effortful Processing

• Automatic processing: the kind of mental activity that occurs without conscious effort

• Effortful processing: requires constant effort and attention. It involves actively listening, analyzing, and using cognitive resources to process information

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory: memory involving detailed, brief sensory images or sounds retained for a brief period of time:

• Photograph viewed for brief moment

Encoding Sensory Memories

• Storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

• Brief storage (couple of seconds)

• Automatically discard info we deem not valuable

• Move valuable info into working memory

Transfering Sensory Memory to Working Memory

• Working memory: a short-term memory store for information you are thinking right now:

  • E.g. recalled memories, this sentence

• Rehearsal:consciously repeating information to ensure it is encoded

Working Memory

• Central Executive: responsible for coordinating and controlling the other subsystems

• Phonological Loop: deals with the auditory info. Two main components:

  • Phonological store: temporarily stores auditory info (spoken words or sounds)

  • Articulatory control process: responsible for the rehearsal of verbal info

• Visuospatial Sketchpad: deals with visual and spatial info. Temporarily stores and manipulate images and spatial relationships

• Episodic Buffer: temporary storage system that integrates info from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory 

Transfering Working Memory to Long-term Memory

• Long-Term Memory: all of the info gathered that is available for use

  • E.g. acquired skills, faces, memories

• Spaced practice effect: facilitates moving working memories into long-term memory by rehearsing over time

Long term memory

• Responsible for the storage of info over extended period (ranging from minute to lifetime)

• Vast storage capacity, believed to be limitless

• Includes explicit and implicit memories

  • Semantic and episodic

  • Procedural, classically conditioned

Types of Encoding

• Ionic or visual encoding: converting  a visual image to understand it as an object

• Echoic or Acoustic Encoding: encoding of sounds, in particular of words

• Semantic Encoding: encoding of words and their meaning

Best methods of effortful encoding

• Understand: remember better when we understand the meaning

• Elaborate: more we can elaborate on meaning  and make it relevant, better we understand

• Use mnemonic devices: techniques used to increase meaningfulness of info to make it more memorable

• Use chunking: groups bits of info together

• Use PQRST Method: Preview, Question, Read, Self,-Recitation, Test

• Use Schemas: organize new info according to categories created by previous experience/learning

Classical Conditioning

• Form of associated leaning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in learned response

  • E.g. Ivan Pavlov trained dog to salivate at sound of bell

How do we Retrieve Memories

• Mentally search brain for stored info

  • Bring back into working memory

• Recall

• Recognition

  • Associating 

• Relearning 

  • Learning info previously studied

What Helps Retrieval?

• Retrieval Cues: words, sights, or other stimuli that remind of the info retrieved

• Context Effects: remember things better where we learned them

• Encoding Specifically Principle: original context, mood, state in which info was learned

• Priming: one piece of info helps us retrieve other related memories

Serial Position Effect

• Primacy Effect: tendency of people to remember items at the beginning of a list more effectively than end or middle

• Recency Effect: the tendency for people to remember items at the ends of list more effectively than middle or beginning

Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory

• Amygdala: facilitates encoding memories at a deeper level when event is more emotionally arousing (fear or anxious)

• Hippocampus: helps with spatial memory, giving memories meaning, and connecting memories with one another

• Cerebellum: involved in non-declarative memory, also known as implicit memory

  • E.g. tying shoes, classical conditioning, timing and temporal sequencing 

• Prefrontal Cortex: processing and retaining info

Why Do We Forget?

• Inability to recall info that was previously encoded into memory

  • Failure of attention

    • Not paying enough intentional attention to properly encode info

  • Storage failure

    • Not typical unless you have neurological condition that impacts storage

  • Retrieval failure

    • Successfully encode and store info but now you cannot find it

  • Decay

    • Memories fade over time due to neglect or failure to access over long periods of time

  • Interference

    • Forgetting is influenced by what happens before or after we take info

  • Motivated forgetting

    • Intentionally or unintentionally or forget or suppress memories or info due to psychological motivations or emotional factors

Distorted or Manufactured Memories

• Memories are subject to distortions because we often have to reconstruct them

  • Source misattributions: remembering info but not its source

  • Imagination: memories can be distorted by false info from imagination

  • Misinformation: misinformation can lead to distortion of the manufacture of false memories

The Mandela Effect

• Misunfo and social influence

  • Exposure to false info through various sources which we adopt and reinforce

• Confabulation

  • Brains tendency to fill in gap with fabricated or imagined details

• Suggestion and priming 

  • Are primed to remember info a certain way learning to formation of false memories

• Memory reconstruction

  • Memories can be influenced by our beliefs, biases, emotions, perceptions

• Cognitive biases

  • Confirmation bias and hindsight bias contribute to memory distortions 

Disorders of Memory

• Amnesic disorders are organic disorders in which memory loss is the primary symptom

  • Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories

  • Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember things before the amnesia inducing event

  • Dementia: severe memory problems combined with losses in at least one other cognitive function, such as abstract thinking or language

  • Alzheimer’s disease: the most common form of dementia

• Eidetic memory (photographic memory) 

  • Ability to vividly recall images, sounds, or objects with great detail with accuracy after brief exposure (mike ross)

• Savant syndrome

  • Elaborate abilities in specialized areas such as a hobby or event, or certain type of info

• Highly Superior Autobiography

  • Condition that leads people to be able to remember an abnormally large amount of their life experiences in vivid detail