INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

• What is Anthropology?

  • study of the development of humans

    • human origin

    • behavior & the physical

    • social & cultural

  • study of the lives & cultures of human beings

    • alive or dead

    • from its beginnings to present day

  • anthropology is derived from greek

    • anthropos (human)

    • logia (study)

  • anthropologists seek to understand what makes us human

    • studies ancestors

    • archaeological excavation

    • observing living cultures

  • they examine how humans;

    • live

    • think

    • communicate

    • produce

    • interact with their;

      • social environment

      • physical environment

• Central Questions of Anthropology

  • how did humans evolve?

  • how does our evolutionary history impact our lives today?

  • what is culture?

  • what characteristics do all cultures share?

  • what lessons can we learn from other cultures?

• Areas of Study in Anthropology

  • two types of anthropology

    • cultural

      • examines cultural variation

      • tries to prove culture is part of human nature

    • physical

      • evolution

      • genetic variation

      • inheritance

      • adaptability

      • other primates

      • uses both;

        • the fossil record

        • modern day genetic research

  • physical anthropology

    • paleoanthropology

    • primatology

    • human variations

  • cultural anthropology

    • archaeology

    • ethnology

    • linguistics

• Physical Anthropology

  • what is it?

    • examines human beings as biological organisms

    • tries to differentiate them from other species

    • studies & creates theories from fragments of physical evidence

      • bones

      • tools

      • charcoal

  • how do anthropologists examine human beings?

    • tracing the origins of the human species

    • digs up & studies skeletons plus artifacts

    • studying biological similarities & differences among human beings

  • what research methods are used?

    • use research methods of natural & physical sciences

    • work with fossils, bones & other remnants of human life

    • gets a rough idea of what humans looked like & the tools they used

• Paleoanthropology, Primatology & Human Variation

  • paleoanthropology:

    • study of bones & stone remains

    • of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago

    • tries to determine how humans evolved

  • archaeology:

    • study of human past through material remains

    • aims to order & describe events

    • explains their meaning

  • primatology:

    • studies the anatomy & behaviors of living primates

    • studies what makes us different from other primates

    • our closest living relatives

• Cultural Anthropology

  • studies past & present day cultures

  • culture is made of what people:

    • do (daily rituals like washing dishes)

    • make (tools used for a variety of purposes)

    • believe (beliefs about the supernatural)

  • culture is viewed as;

    • a ways of living learned over time

    • shared by groups people

  • focuses on things you learn about, NOT what we are born knowing;

    • knowledge

    • language

    • beliefs

    • art morals

    • laws

    • customs

  • major conflict within cultural anthropology

    • a question

    • how can another culture be understood by an outsider?

  • ethnology

    • immerse themselves in a culture for months/years

    • takes detailed notes

    • tries to understand how people live in different parts of the world

  • linguistics

    • studies how language & other forms of human communication contribute to the reproduction, transmission, & transformation of culture

• Charles Darwin

  • spent 20 years gathering evidence & writing

  • his theory is about evolution through natural selection

  • anguished over the controversy it would create in victorian england

  • the idea was going against religion & societal norms of the time

  • was considered orthodox

  • wanted to demonstrate that new species could be created from a common ancestor

  • this was done by the accumulation of small changes over generations

    • “I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection.”

    • “It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is most adaptable to change.”

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

• universe calendar created by the american astronomer carl sagan

  • the history of the universe condensed into one year

  • big bang occurred january 1st

  • milky way formed on may 1st

  • solar system formed september 9th

  • life on earth emerged on september 25th

  • humanlike primates first appeared december 31st at 10:30pm

• many theories as to where humans came from

  • ranges from religious to scientific

  • creationism

    • accounts from biological diversity

    • refers to the divine act of creation

    • is described in the book of genesis

    • creation of adam

    • michelangelo (1475-1564)

  • intelligent design

    • modern physics & cosmology

    • intelligence is in the structure of the universe

    • intelligence seems to act with us in mind

    • the universe as a whole shows evidence of design

    • a belief that life on earth is so complex it cannot be explained by science

    • therefore, it must have been created by a supernatural force

  • scientific theory

    • human evolution

    • developed by charles darwin

    • 1831: he traveled to south america

    • was a 5 year journey to study nature

    • wrote a book (1859) “on the origin of the species”

    • change in the heritable traits in species over time or generations

    • organisms change structurally & genetically

    • humans & other living organisms have also changed

    • transformed to survive in changing environments

    • results in the gradual development of new species

    • “natural selection”

    • darwin's theories based on observing a variety of species

      • observed finches on galapagos islands

      • noticed many species of finches on the island

      • all evolved differently based on what they ate

      • some finches were large & had powerful beaks

      • could break open hard seeds

      • smaller finches could not compete

      • they developed short, thick beaks

      • allowed them to eat leaves & blossoms

      • third species had long, straight beaks

      • allowed them to eat nectar from cacti

    • two important concepts;

      • natural selection

        • biological change

        • reproductive success of individuals within a species

        • caused by the individual's adaptive fitness to the environment

        • survival of the fittest

      • adaptation

        • adjustment of an organism

        • changes to a particular set of environmental conditions

        • exceptionally slow process –> we can’t see it

    • darwin’s theory is generally accepted in the scientific community today

    • however, there are many gaps in his work

    • recent genetic studies support his theory

      • all humans trace back to common african origin

    • still much debate over date of origin, method of dispersal

    • many scientists have studied fossilized remains

      • done to try & prove or to disprove darwin

• theory of natural selection;

  • on the origins of species (1859)

  • said the species must adapt or face extinction

  • only when circumstances require it

  • example; changes in food supply

  • species adapt to survive

  • passes on their genetics to offsprings

  • no two members of a species are 100% identical

    • biological inheritance & environmental adaptation

  • those better adapted to the environment will thrive

    • gets food

    • finds shelter

    • avoids predators

    • reproduces more frequently

  • individuals who are not suited to the environment will perish

    • will have fewer offspring

  • the offspring of well adapted individuals will also thrive in that environment

  • will pass on their advantaged genetic traits to their offspring (& so on…)

  • the poorly adapted will eventually become extinct

  • this process DOES NOT create new traits in individuals

  • it chooses from traits already present in a population

  • would allow for the balance between food supply & species growth to be maintained

  • when an imbalance occurred, new stages of adaptation would begin

• the evolution of humans;

  • physical anthropologists study human biological evolution using;

  • fossil evidence (paleontology)

  • cultural remains (archaeology)

  • DNA studies

  • human beings evolved from apes over millions of years

  • physical & mental characteristics so similar there must be one ancestor

  • a result of changes in climate & living conditions

  • “the descent of man” 🡪 origins & nature of humanity

  • takes millions of years, many of our ancestors overlapped

  • evolution follows no strict path

  • some things that can affect evolution;

    • changes in weather

    • natural disasters

    • new predators & prey

  • we share almost 98% of our dna with chimpanzees

  • humans are bipedal (walk on two feet)

  • fossils of all early hominids found in east & south africa

  • as the climate there changed to savannah from jungle

  • forced our ancestors to walk upright

  • 1924: raymond dart, an anatomist, was given a skull

    • was found in taung in south africa

  • skull looked to be more human than ape

  • dart found out that these type of human walked upright but had a small brain

  • dart named the skull & its people australopithecus africanus

    • “southern ape from africa”

    • declared it to be an early form of human

  • 1959: louis & mary leakey found more proof that humans originated in africa

    • found an australopithecine skull in olduvai gorge, kenya

    • determined the skull to be 1.75 million years old

    • later found fossils including those from homo habilis & homo erectus

  • mary leakey (1913-1996) proved that early hominids walked upright

    • done through her archaeological work

    • done in tanzania, east africa

  • archaeologists still unsure as to why

  • helped early hominids to dissipate heat from their bodies

  • they inhabited the hot african climates

  • standing up straight exposed less of their body to the sun

  • kept their brains cool

  • must have offered greater protection

  • early hominids could see predators at greater distances & run away

  • allowed early hominids to use their hands to create tools

  • humans communicate using language

  • a variety of forms of communication

    • various newspapers

    • speaking

    • sign language

    • communicating through the internet

  • earliest fossil of a bipedal hominid is australopithecus afarensis

    • lived between 4 & 3 million years ago.

  • first partial skeleton discovered in hadar, ethiopia in 1974

    • by donald johanson

    • nicknamed “lucy”

  • first early skeleton of its type that could be reconstructed was 3.2 million years old

  • 1978: hominid footprints were discovered nearby

    • helped to prove “lucy” walked upright

  • australopithecus afarensis was;

    • more like a chimpanzee

    • walked slightly bow legged

    • chimpanzee-like hips & curved toes

    • was about 4 feet tall

    • possessed a small skull

    • ape-like features

    • low forehead

    • flat nose, no chin

    • brain was one third that of modern humans

    • it had great muscular strength

    • lacked the power of speech

    • no evidence that it made tools

  • homo habilis or “handy man” is arguably the first species of the hominids

    • lived from approximately 2.4 million to at least 1.6 million years ago

    • discovery of this species is credited to both mary & louis leakey

    • there is evidence it was the first hominid to manufacture stone tools

    • still had a primitive face & a brain one half the size of a modern human

    • may have had rudimentary speech

    • may have built first shelters

  • homo erectus or “upright human”

    • lived from 1.7 million to approximately 500,000 years ago

    • protruding jaw, no chin, thick brow ridges, long skull

    • teeth were smaller than homo habilis

    • brain was much larger than homo habilis

    • may have had advanced speech

    • first hominid to control fire

    • more sophisticated tools

    • first hominid to have left africa

    • spread throughout asia & europe

    • those that stayed in africa sometimes referred to as homo ergaster

  • neanderthals or “cavemen”

    • very human-like

    • 5’ 4’’ in height

    • lived in cold climates

    • were shorter

    • tended towards thicker craniums

    • a heavy brow ridge

    • a stockier skeleton due to;

      • climate

      • diet of mainly meat

    • gets a bad press in popular culture

    • had a larger brain than modern humans

    • evidence they had;

      • musical instruments

      • tools & fire

      • buried dead with flowers

    • they did not live in caves but on plains

    • coexisted with homo sapiens for at least 20,000 years

      • perhaps as long as 60,000 years

      • then died out

    • what happened? several theories;

      • interbred with homo sapiens

      • were killed off by home sapiens

      • drove into extinction by competition

    • otherwise known as the very wise or thinking human

  • the earliest homo sapiens were called cro magnons

    • named after the cave of cro magnon in southwest france

    • was where the first specimen was found

    • an excellent hunter with sophisticated weapons

    • had control over its living environment

    • spread to north america & australia

    • was the first to develop art

• evolution vs creationism;

  • creationist theory

    • humankind was brought forth by god in his image

    • first adam & eve

    • eve was made from the rib of adam

    • he would not be lonely

  • evolution

    • man evolved over time from a lower form of animal

    • believed that the strongest animals adapted to their surroundings

  • famous evolutionist

    • charles darwin wrote the origin of species in the 1880s

    • believed man evolved from apes

    • caused outrage at the time

  • scopes trial

    • 1925: a teacher named scopes was put on trial

    • done for teaching evolution

    • he was fined a $100 which is $1600 in our time

    • symbolized the decline in public acceptance of the biblical version

• what makes us human?

  • compared to animals, humans can

    • walk upright

    • communicate in oral & written forms

    • think & problem solve

    • evolved physically & cognitively

  • how has humanity become the most dominant species on earth?

  • we are not the largest or the fastest

  • species classification by carolus linnaeus

  • during the age of exploration during the 15th & 16th centuries

  • new species of plants & animals were discovered

  • new types of people were being discovered

    • beothuk in newfoundland

    • the aztecs

  • new information needed to be organized if a thorough study could be done

  • one of the earliest naturalists to start classifying humans was carolus linnaeus

  • believed a classification system was required to organize the results of divine creation

  • his first idea was to classify plants & animals according to their anatomical structures

  • if they looked similar they could be classified together

  • he also believed that humans & plants were fixed & could not change

  • meant god’s work was perfect as created & could not change its composition or evolve

  • later revised his ideas as he saw the results of crossbreeding plants

  • some oppose the theory of evolution as it goes against biblical writings

  • they state that god made the earth in 7 days

  • some believe that fossil evidence is sketchy & not clearly defined

  • some resist the idea that humans evolved from other animal species

  • gregor mendel – conducted a series of breeding experiments with pea plants

  • mendel’s work indicates;

    • humans inherit a variety of characteristics from their biological parents

    • still maintain a unique DNA code

    • over the generations certain traits could be passed down & altered

  • if a parent has red hair some grandchildren may also have red hair

  • this trait may skip a generation

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

• what is cultural anthropology?

  • a social science that studies cultures around the world

  • cultural anthropologists have to remain objective and discourage generalizations

  • the goal of cultural anthropology is to;

    • prevent ethnocentrism

    • promote cultural relativism

• aims of cultural anthropology

  • provide objective insight into other cultures

  • help preserve valuable knowledge, cultural practices and languages around the world

  • to foster cross-cultural empathy, understanding and collaboration

  • to emphasize similarities among human cultures and help bridge their differences and misunderstandings

• ethnocentrism

  • the belief that one’s cultural group is centrally important and superior to others

  • we are ethnocentric when we use our cultural norms to make generalizations about other cultures and customs

  • leads to cultural misinterpretation

  • often distorts communication between humans

  • examples;

    • british drivers driving “on the wrong side” of the road

    • hebrew or arabic as reading “backward”

    • viewing certain types of art as “naive” or “primitive”

• xenocentrism

  • the belief that other cultures are superior than your own

  • examples;

    • many americans believe europeans make better cars

    • belief that other countries produce better children’s toys, clothing trends, etc.

    • embracing hygge (hoo-gah) lifestyle

      • coziness and comfiness - candles, comfy clothes, warm blankets

• cultural relativism

  • the principle that an individual human’s belief and activities make sense in terms of his or her own culture

  • a relativist perspective explains human diversity as a logical outcome of the diverse environments in which humans live

  • when it comes to right or wrong, there is no fixed truth but rather all is relative

• 3 terms about cultural expectations

  • taboo - something that is forbidden (banned) for religious, moral and/or social reasons

  • norms - the rules within a group that indicate how members should behave

  • folkways - informal practices based on tradition

• 3 terms about cultural interactions

  • cultural diffusion

    • “borrowing” culture, alter/adapt new elements to fit in their culture

    • borrowing elements that fit within existing culture

    • elements that do not fit are rejected

    • elements only accepted if they are useful to the group

    • social groups that borrow elements are more likely to do it again

  • cultural assimilation

    • the process in which a minority group of culture takes on the traits of the dominant culture of a society

    • referred to as cultural extinction

    • undertaken voluntarily or by force

  • multiculturalism

    • the existence, acceptance, or promotion of multiple traditions (and cultures) within a specific area

• communication

  • language (speech & writing)

  • non - verbal (body language, tone & character of voice, interactive distances, clothing, makeup, etc)

  • human communication occurs via:

    • verbal (oral

    • written language

    • body language

    • side language

  • verbal language

    • is under the study of anthropological linguistics

    • studies the development of language as it evolved over millions of years

    • language - a sophisticated communication system that includes vocabulary & a set of rules (grammar) outlining its proper use

    • need language to work together (hunting/warning others of danger)

    • language is a distinctive feature of human species

    • first evolved from body gestures (earliest form of communication)

    • slowly developed and fewer body gestures were used

    • as our ancestors evolved;

      • brain sizes increased

      • brain organization changed to allow abstract thought

      • broca’s area of the brain that controls speech developed

      • physical attributes developed to allow for speech

    • broca’s area

      • section of the brain involved in speech production

      • specifically accesses arrangement of words while listening to and understanding complicated structures

      • found in our ancestors over 1.8 million years ago (may not have functioned as it does today)

      • people suffering brain damage to this area are unable to understand or make complex sentences

    • physical attributes

      • all elements were in place only the last 300 000 years for speech

        • position of the larynx or voice box

        • hyoid bone (to control muscles in the jaw, larynx & tongue)

    • human language constantly evolves resulting in new terms being developed to describe new concepts

    • unless newly developed words can be translated into french, the language may become stagnant and english may become dominant

    • languages that fail to evolve tend to die (latin)

  • written language

    • first stage of true writing began with picture writing - ‘pictography’

    • second stage began with symbols that could express abstract ideas - ‘hieroglyphics’

    • picture writing & idea symbols were eventually altered by the use of symbols linked to the sound of the word - ‘phonography’

    • phonography led to the development of the alphabet & modern day writing

    • pictography is still used today in the form of bliss symbols & allows nonverbal, physically challenged individuals to communicate

  • body language

    • means of communicating information & attitudes in a non-verbal manner

    • may be conscious or subconscious

    • an important part of converting the message intended

    • early communication may have relied less on words and more on grunts and facial expressions & body language

    • email has developed emoticons to provide body language cues

    • what is considered respectful and polite is different in different cultures

    • we use body language to compliment our language & reinforce our messages

    • effective body language helps ensure that communication is clear

  • sign language

    • language that uses hand gestures and facial expressions to share a message

    • variety of different forms of sign language exist

    • most common is american sign language (asl)

• rites of passage

  • ceremonies that mark a person’s progress from one phase to another

  • often involves rituals which are ceremonial acts prescribed by tradition or religion that set humans apart from other species

  • common cross cultural examples include birth, puberty, death

  • may be related to religion, historical traditions, cultural expectations

  • adoption process;

    • you are changed from what you were to something new

    • you remove yourself from society temporarily

    • you are readmitted to society as a new person

  • the socialization process is directly involved in rites of passage as it relates to parental, peer & societal instruction & is culturally specific

  • reasons for rites;

    • contribute to an individual & a society’s stability

    • they help people cope with unexpected & sometimes difficult stages in life

    • recognition that one is not alone in the transition

    • can help relieve stress & help individuals understand their personal growth

    • entertainment value as public events that can be serious or humorous

  • rites may also be accompanied by important symbols (new clothing or jewelry)

  • coming of age ceremonies

    • initiation into puberty is universal

    • demarks the significant transition from childhood to youth

    • all societies mark this transition in important ways involving ceremonies

    • often are public events to recognize that the young people will now be given more responsibility in society

  • initiations

    • around the world puberty rites often have common features

    • some rites involve mutilation: scarring, piercing of body parts, tattooing

    • others may demand endurance: beating, rigorous fasting, trials of pain

    • may involve the use of ritual pain or markings, special clothing, etc

    • the emphasis is on instruction in proper adult behaviors

    • lessons involve dress, speech, morality

  • biological changes

    • during ceremonies, males are ritually separated from all women

    • this is to show how they were leaving their mother

    • meaning of body hair, shaving in various cultures

    • women often have ceremonies surrounding the onset of menses

  • perspectives

    • anthropologists focus on historical & cross-cultural perspectives

    • psychologists look at the impact on the individuals, mental health & stability

    • sociologists examine these in terms of the different social groups of teens & impact on gender, race & economic status

  • moving away from family

    • a gradual process that happens at different time for everyone

    • anthropologists view this cross culturally

    • psychologists look at the development of personal identity as the individual matures; need for personal space & an independent life

    • sociologists look at the format of ‘new’ [family] groupings

    • first serious relationship is part of the moving away from the safety of the family & into the new safety of outside relationships

• arranged marriages

  • typically done in middle eastern cultures, traditional cultural & strongly religious groups

  • typically arranged by family, close friends, matchmakers

  • considered a decision too important to be left up to young people

  • choices of partner are based on;

    • what others know of you (qualities, interests, values, beliefs)

    • what is best for you and for your family

    • not based on love - love will follow

  • strengths;

    • you don't need to spend time looking for a mate

    • you have more time for other important things in life

    • mothers may be more objective and aware of your needs than you are

  • problems;

    • little opportunity to divorce if it doesn’t work out

    • you may have little input into the decision

    • you may not like the selected mate

    • little personal choice - familial expectations