INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

• What is Anthropology?
  • study of the development of humans
  • human origin
  • behavior & the physical
  • social & cultural
  • study of the lives & cultures of human beings
  • alive or dead
  • from its beginnings to present day
  • anthropology is derived from greek
  • anthropos (human)
  • logia (study)
  • anthropologists seek to understand what makes us human
  • studies ancestors
  • archaeological excavation
  • observing living cultures
  • they examine how humans;
  • live
  • think
  • communicate
  • produce
  • interact with their;
    • social environment
    • physical environment
• Central Questions of Anthropology
  • how did humans evolve?
  • how does our evolutionary history impact our lives today?
  • what is culture?
  • what characteristics do all cultures share?
  • what lessons can we learn from other cultures?
• Areas of Study in Anthropology
  • two types of anthropology
  • cultural
    • examines cultural variation
    • tries to prove culture is part of human nature
  • physical
    • evolution
    • genetic variation
    • inheritance
    • adaptability
    • other primates
    • uses both;
    • the fossil record
    • modern day genetic research
  • physical anthropology
  • paleoanthropology
  • primatology
  • human variations
  • cultural anthropology
  • archaeology
  • ethnology
  • linguistics
• Physical Anthropology
  • what is it?
  • examines human beings as biological organisms
  • tries to differentiate them from other species
  • studies & creates theories from fragments of physical evidence
    • bones
    • tools
    • charcoal
  • how do anthropologists examine human beings?
  • tracing the origins of the human species
  • digs up & studies skeletons plus artifacts
  • studying biological similarities & differences among human beings
  • what research methods are used?
  • use research methods of natural & physical sciences
  • work with fossils, bones & other remnants of human life
  • gets a rough idea of what humans looked like & the tools they used
• Paleoanthropology, Primatology & Human Variation
  • paleoanthropology:
  • study of bones & stone remains
  • of our ancient ancestors from millions of years ago
  • tries to determine how humans evolved
  • archaeology:
  • study of human past through material remains
  • aims to order & describe events
  • explains their meaning
  • primatology:
  • studies the anatomy & behaviors of living primates
  • studies what makes us different from other primates
  • our closest living relatives
• Cultural Anthropology
  • studies past & present day cultures
  • culture is made of what people:
  • do (daily rituals like washing dishes)
  • make (tools used for a variety of purposes)
  • believe (beliefs about the supernatural)
  • culture is viewed as;
  • a ways of living learned over time
  • shared by groups people
  • focuses on things you learn about, NOT what we are born knowing;
  • knowledge
  • language
  • beliefs
  • art morals
  • laws
  • customs
  • major conflict within cultural anthropology
  • a question
  • how can another culture be understood by an outsider?
  • ethnology
  • immerse themselves in a culture for months/years
  • takes detailed notes
  • tries to understand how people live in different parts of the world
  • linguistics
  • studies how language & other forms of human communication contribute to the reproduction, transmission, & transformation of culture
• Charles Darwin
  • spent 20 years gathering evidence & writing
  • his theory is about evolution through natural selection
  • anguished over the controversy it would create in victorian england
  • the idea was going against religion & societal norms of the time
  • was considered orthodox
  • wanted to demonstrate that new species could be created from a common ancestor
  • this was done by the accumulation of small changes over generations
  • “I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection.”
  • “It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is most adaptable to change.”

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

• universe calendar created by the american astronomer carl sagan
  • the history of the universe condensed into one year
  • big bang occurred january 1st
  • milky way formed on may 1st
  • solar system formed september 9th
  • life on earth emerged on september 25th
  • humanlike primates first appeared december 31st at 10:30pm
• many theories as to where humans came from
  • ranges from religious to scientific
  • creationism
  • accounts from biological diversity
  • refers to the divine act of creation
  • is described in the book of genesis
  • creation of adam
  • michelangelo (1475-1564)
  • intelligent design
  • modern physics & cosmology
  • intelligence is in the structure of the universe
  • intelligence seems to act with us in mind
  • the universe as a whole shows evidence of design
  • a belief that life on earth is so complex it cannot be explained by science
  • therefore, it must have been created by a supernatural force
  • scientific theory
  • human evolution
  • developed by charles darwin
  • 1831: he traveled to south america
  • was a 5 year journey to study nature
  • wrote a book (1859) “on the origin of the species”
  • change in the heritable traits in species over time or generations
  • organisms change structurally & genetically
  • humans & other living organisms have also changed
  • transformed to survive in changing environments
  • results in the gradual development of new species
  • “natural selection”
  • darwin's theories based on observing a variety of species
    • observed finches on galapagos islands
    • noticed many species of finches on the island
    • all evolved differently based on what they ate
    • some finches were large & had powerful beaks
    • could break open hard seeds
    • smaller finches could not compete
    • they developed short, thick beaks
    • allowed them to eat leaves & blossoms
    • third species had long, straight beaks
    • allowed them to eat nectar from cacti
  • two important concepts;
    • natural selection
    • biological change
    • reproductive success of individuals within a species
    • caused by the individual's adaptive fitness to the environment
    • survival of the fittest
    • adaptation
    • adjustment of an organism
    • changes to a particular set of environmental conditions
    • exceptionally slow process –> we can’t see it
  • darwin’s theory is generally accepted in the scientific community today
  • however, there are many gaps in his work
  • recent genetic studies support his theory
    • all humans trace back to common african origin
  • still much debate over date of origin, method of dispersal
  • many scientists have studied fossilized remains
    • done to try & prove or to disprove darwin
• theory of natural selection;
  • on the origins of species (1859)
  • said the species must adapt or face extinction
  • only when circumstances require it
  • example; changes in food supply
  • species adapt to survive
  • passes on their genetics to offsprings
  • no two members of a species are 100% identical
  • biological inheritance & environmental adaptation
  • those better adapted to the environment will thrive
  • gets food
  • finds shelter
  • avoids predators
  • reproduces more frequently
  • individuals who are not suited to the environment will perish
  • will have fewer offspring
  • the offspring of well adapted individuals will also thrive in that environment
  • will pass on their advantaged genetic traits to their offspring (& so on…)
  • the poorly adapted will eventually become extinct
  • this process DOES NOT create new traits in individuals
  • it chooses from traits already present in a population
  • would allow for the balance between food supply & species growth to be maintained
  • when an imbalance occurred, new stages of adaptation would begin
• the evolution of humans;
  • physical anthropologists study human biological evolution using;
  • fossil evidence (paleontology)
  • cultural remains (archaeology)
  • DNA studies
  • human beings evolved from apes over millions of years
  • physical & mental characteristics so similar there must be one ancestor
  • a result of changes in climate & living conditions
  • “the descent of man” 🡪 origins & nature of humanity
  • takes millions of years, many of our ancestors overlapped
  • evolution follows no strict path
  • some things that can affect evolution;
  • changes in weather
  • natural disasters
  • new predators & prey
  • we share almost 98% of our dna with chimpanzees
  • humans are bipedal (walk on two feet)
  • fossils of all early hominids found in east & south africa
  • as the climate there changed to savannah from jungle
  • forced our ancestors to walk upright
  • 1924: raymond dart, an anatomist, was given a skull
  • was found in taung in south africa
  • skull looked to be more human than ape
  • dart found out that these type of human walked upright but had a small brain
  • dart named the skull & its people australopithecus africanus
  • “southern ape from africa”
  • declared it to be an early form of human
  • 1959: louis & mary leakey found more proof that humans originated in africa
  • found an australopithecine skull in olduvai gorge, kenya
  • determined the skull to be 1.75 million years old
  • later found fossils including those from homo habilis & homo erectus
  • mary leakey (1913-1996) proved that early hominids walked upright
  • done through her archaeological work
  • done in tanzania, east africa
  • archaeologists still unsure as to why
  • helped early hominids to dissipate heat from their bodies
  • they inhabited the hot african climates
  • standing up straight exposed less of their body to the sun
  • kept their brains cool
  • must have offered greater protection
  • early hominids could see predators at greater distances & run away
  • allowed early hominids to use their hands to create tools
  • humans communicate using language
  • a variety of forms of communication
  • various newspapers
  • speaking
  • sign language
  • communicating through the internet
  • earliest fossil of a bipedal hominid is australopithecus afarensis
  • lived between 4 & 3 million years ago.
  • first partial skeleton discovered in hadar, ethiopia in 1974
  • by donald johanson
  • nicknamed “lucy”
  • first early skeleton of its type that could be reconstructed was 3.2 million years old
  • 1978: hominid footprints were discovered nearby
  • helped to prove “lucy” walked upright
  • australopithecus afarensis was;
  • more like a chimpanzee
  • walked slightly bow legged
  • chimpanzee-like hips & curved toes
  • was about 4 feet tall
  • possessed a small skull
  • ape-like features
  • low forehead
  • flat nose, no chin
  • brain was one third that of modern humans
  • it had great muscular strength
  • lacked the power of speech
  • no evidence that it made tools
  • homo habilis or “handy man” is arguably the first species of the hominids
  • lived from approximately 2.4 million to at least 1.6 million years ago
  • discovery of this species is credited to both mary & louis leakey
  • there is evidence it was the first hominid to manufacture stone tools
  • still had a primitive face & a brain one half the size of a modern human
  • may have had rudimentary speech
  • may have built first shelters
  • homo erectus or “upright human”
  • lived from 1.7 million to approximately 500,000 years ago
  • protruding jaw, no chin, thick brow ridges, long skull
  • teeth were smaller than homo habilis
  • brain was much larger than homo habilis
  • may have had advanced speech
  • first hominid to control fire
  • more sophisticated tools
  • first hominid to have left africa
  • spread throughout asia & europe
  • those that stayed in africa sometimes referred to as homo ergaster
  • neanderthals or “cavemen”
  • very human-like
  • 5’ 4’’ in height
  • lived in cold climates
  • were shorter
  • tended towards thicker craniums
  • a heavy brow ridge
  • a stockier skeleton due to;
    • climate
    • diet of mainly meat
  • gets a bad press in popular culture
  • had a larger brain than modern humans
  • evidence they had;
    • musical instruments
    • tools & fire
    • buried dead with flowers
  • they did not live in caves but on plains
  • coexisted with homo sapiens for at least 20,000 years
    • perhaps as long as 60,000 years
    • then died out
  • what happened? several theories;
    • interbred with homo sapiens
    • were killed off by home sapiens
    • drove into extinction by competition
  • otherwise known as the very wise or thinking human
  • the earliest homo sapiens were called cro magnons
  • named after the cave of cro magnon in southwest france
  • was where the first specimen was found
  • an excellent hunter with sophisticated weapons
  • had control over its living environment
  • spread to north america & australia
  • was the first to develop art
• evolution vs creationism;
  • creationist theory
  • humankind was brought forth by god in his image
  • first adam & eve
  • eve was made from the rib of adam
  • he would not be lonely
  • evolution
  • man evolved over time from a lower form of animal
  • believed that the strongest animals adapted to their surroundings
  • famous evolutionist
  • charles darwin wrote the origin of species in the 1880s
  • believed man evolved from apes
  • caused outrage at the time
  • scopes trial
  • 1925: a teacher named scopes was put on trial
  • done for teaching evolution
  • he was fined a $100 which is $1600 in our time
  • symbolized the decline in public acceptance of the biblical version
• what makes us human?
  • compared to animals, humans can
  • walk upright
  • communicate in oral & written forms
  • think & problem solve
  • evolved physically & cognitively
  • how has humanity become the most dominant species on earth?
  • we are not the largest or the fastest
  • species classification by carolus linnaeus
  • during the age of exploration during the 15th & 16th centuries
  • new species of plants & animals were discovered
  • new types of people were being discovered
  • beothuk in newfoundland
  • the aztecs
  • new information needed to be organized if a thorough study could be done
  • one of the earliest naturalists to start classifying humans was carolus linnaeus
  • believed a classification system was required to organize the results of divine creation
  • his first idea was to classify plants & animals according to their anatomical structures
  • if they looked similar they could be classified together
  • he also believed that humans & plants were fixed & could not change
  • meant god’s work was perfect as created & could not change its composition or evolve
  • later revised his ideas as he saw the results of crossbreeding plants
  • some oppose the theory of evolution as it goes against biblical writings
  • they state that god made the earth in 7 days
  • some believe that fossil evidence is sketchy & not clearly defined
  • some resist the idea that humans evolved from other animal species
  • gregor mendel – conducted a series of breeding experiments with pea plants
  • mendel’s work indicates;
  • humans inherit a variety of characteristics from their biological parents
  • still maintain a unique DNA code
  • over the generations certain traits could be passed down & altered
  • if a parent has red hair some grandchildren may also have red hair
  • this trait may skip a generation

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

• what is cultural anthropology?
  • a social science that studies cultures around the world
  • cultural anthropologists have to remain objective and discourage generalizations
  • the goal of cultural anthropology is to;
  • prevent ethnocentrism
  • promote cultural relativism
• aims of cultural anthropology
  • provide objective insight into other cultures
  • help preserve valuable knowledge, cultural practices and languages around the world
  • to foster cross-cultural empathy, understanding and collaboration
  • to emphasize similarities among human cultures and help bridge their differences and misunderstandings
• ethnocentrism
  • the belief that one’s cultural group is centrally important and superior to others
  • we are ethnocentric when we use our cultural norms to make generalizations about other cultures and customs
  • leads to cultural misinterpretation
  • often distorts communication between humans
  • examples;
  • british drivers driving “on the wrong side” of the road
  • hebrew or arabic as reading “backward”
  • viewing certain types of art as “naive” or “primitive”
• xenocentrism
  • the belief that other cultures are superior than your own
  • examples;
  • many americans believe europeans make better cars
  • belief that other countries produce better children’s toys, clothing trends, etc.
  • embracing hygge (hoo-gah) lifestyle
    • coziness and comfiness - candles, comfy clothes, warm blankets
• cultural relativism
  • the principle that an individual human’s belief and activities make sense in terms of his or her own culture
  • a relativist perspective explains human diversity as a logical outcome of the diverse environments in which humans live
  • when it comes to right or wrong, there is no fixed truth but rather all is relative
• 3 terms about cultural expectations
  • taboo - something that is forbidden (banned) for religious, moral and/or social reasons
  • norms - the rules within a group that indicate how members should behave
  • folkways - informal practices based on tradition
• 3 terms about cultural interactions
  • cultural diffusion
  • “borrowing” culture, alter/adapt new elements to fit in their culture
  • borrowing elements that fit within existing culture
  • elements that do not fit are rejected
  • elements only accepted if they are useful to the group
  • social groups that borrow elements are more likely to do it again
  • cultural assimilation
  • the process in which a minority group of culture takes on the traits of the dominant culture of a society
  • referred to as cultural extinction
  • undertaken voluntarily or by force
  • multiculturalism
  • the existence, acceptance, or promotion of multiple traditions (and cultures) within a specific area
• communication
  • language (speech & writing)
  • non - verbal (body language, tone & character of voice, interactive distances, clothing, makeup, etc)
  • human communication occurs via:
  • verbal (oral
  • written language
  • body language
  • side language
  • verbal language
  • is under the study of anthropological linguistics
  • studies the development of language as it evolved over millions of years
  • language - a sophisticated communication system that includes vocabulary & a set of rules (grammar) outlining its proper use
  • need language to work together (hunting/warning others of danger)
  • language is a distinctive feature of human species
  • first evolved from body gestures (earliest form of communication)
  • slowly developed and fewer body gestures were used
  • as our ancestors evolved;
    • brain sizes increased
    • brain organization changed to allow abstract thought
    • broca’s area of the brain that controls speech developed
    • physical attributes developed to allow for speech
  • broca’s area
    • section of the brain involved in speech production
    • specifically accesses arrangement of words while listening to and understanding complicated structures
    • found in our ancestors over 1.8 million years ago (may not have functioned as it does today)
    • people suffering brain damage to this area are unable to understand or make complex sentences
  • physical attributes
    • all elements were in place only the last 300 000 years for speech
    • position of the larynx or voice box
    • hyoid bone (to control muscles in the jaw, larynx & tongue)
  • human language constantly evolves resulting in new terms being developed to describe new concepts
  • unless newly developed words can be translated into french, the language may become stagnant and english may become dominant
  • languages that fail to evolve tend to die (latin)
  • written language
  • first stage of true writing began with picture writing - ‘pictography’
  • second stage began with symbols that could express abstract ideas - ‘hieroglyphics’
  • picture writing & idea symbols were eventually altered by the use of symbols linked to the sound of the word - ‘phonography’
  • phonography led to the development of the alphabet & modern day writing
  • pictography is still used today in the form of bliss symbols & allows nonverbal, physically challenged individuals to communicate
  • body language
  • means of communicating information & attitudes in a non-verbal manner
  • may be conscious or subconscious
  • an important part of converting the message intended
  • early communication may have relied less on words and more on grunts and facial expressions & body language
  • email has developed emoticons to provide body language cues
  • what is considered respectful and polite is different in different cultures
  • we use body language to compliment our language & reinforce our messages
  • effective body language helps ensure that communication is clear
  • sign language
  • language that uses hand gestures and facial expressions to share a message
  • variety of different forms of sign language exist
  • most common is american sign language (asl)
• rites of passage
  • ceremonies that mark a person’s progress from one phase to another
  • often involves rituals which are ceremonial acts prescribed by tradition or religion that set humans apart from other species
  • common cross cultural examples include birth, puberty, death
  • may be related to religion, historical traditions, cultural expectations
  • adoption process;
  • you are changed from what you were to something new
  • you remove yourself from society temporarily
  • you are readmitted to society as a new person
  • the socialization process is directly involved in rites of passage as it relates to parental, peer & societal instruction & is culturally specific
  • reasons for rites;
  • contribute to an individual & a society’s stability
  • they help people cope with unexpected & sometimes difficult stages in life
  • recognition that one is not alone in the transition
  • can help relieve stress & help individuals understand their personal growth
  • entertainment value as public events that can be serious or humorous
  • rites may also be accompanied by important symbols (new clothing or jewelry)
  • coming of age ceremonies
  • initiation into puberty is universal
  • demarks the significant transition from childhood to youth
  • all societies mark this transition in important ways involving ceremonies
  • often are public events to recognize that the young people will now be given more responsibility in society
  • initiations
  • around the world puberty rites often have common features
  • some rites involve mutilation: scarring, piercing of body parts, tattooing
  • others may demand endurance: beating, rigorous fasting, trials of pain
  • may involve the use of ritual pain or markings, special clothing, etc
  • the emphasis is on instruction in proper adult behaviors
  • lessons involve dress, speech, morality
  • biological changes
  • during ceremonies, males are ritually separated from all women
  • this is to show how they were leaving their mother
  • meaning of body hair, shaving in various cultures
  • women often have ceremonies surrounding the onset of menses
  • perspectives
  • anthropologists focus on historical & cross-cultural perspectives
  • psychologists look at the impact on the individuals, mental health & stability
  • sociologists examine these in terms of the different social groups of teens & impact on gender, race & economic status
  • moving away from family
  • a gradual process that happens at different time for everyone
  • anthropologists view this cross culturally
  • psychologists look at the development of personal identity as the individual matures; need for personal space & an independent life
  • sociologists look at the format of ‘new’ [family] groupings
  • first serious relationship is part of the moving away from the safety of the family & into the new safety of outside relationships
• arranged marriages
  • typically done in middle eastern cultures, traditional cultural & strongly religious groups
  • typically arranged by family, close friends, matchmakers
  • considered a decision too important to be left up to young people
  • choices of partner are based on;
  • what others know of you (qualities, interests, values, beliefs)
  • what is best for you and for your family
  • not based on love - love will follow
  • strengths;
  • you don't need to spend time looking for a mate
  • you have more time for other important things in life
  • mothers may be more objective and aware of your needs than you are
  • problems;
  • little opportunity to divorce if it doesn’t work out
  • you may have little input into the decision
  • you may not like the selected mate
  • little personal choice - familial expectations