Notes on the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion

Overview of the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion

• Unit Two of AP European History focuses on the Protestant Reformation and the subsequent wars of religion. Key themes include the major conflicts arising from religious reforms, primarily in Western Europe.

Pre-Reformation Context

• Christian Church Split (1054): The Christian church split into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

  • The Roman Catholic Church dominated Western Europe, leaving no alternative for dissenters; Catholicism was the only option available.

Church Corruption in the 1500s

• By the 1500s, the Catholic Church became rife with political entanglements and wealth that contributed to corruption. Key issues included:

  • Simony: Buying and selling of church offices, leading to unqualified individuals holding significant positions.

  • Nepotism: Church leaders appointed friends and family rather than the most qualified candidates.

  • Indulgences: The sale of indulgences allowed people to buy their salvation or that of their loved ones, justified by church leaders as a means to finance renovations like St. Peter's Basilica.

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

• Martin Luther: An Augustinian monk and Christian humanist who challenged church practices.

  • Claimed salvation is achieved through grace alone by faith, opposing the church’s stress on good works and indulgences.

  • Promoted the concept that scripture is the sole authority for Christians; rejected church hierarchy (the priesthood of all believers).

• 95 Theses (1517):

  • Luther posted his theses at the Wittenberg church, sparking widespread discussion thanks to the printing press.

  • Intended to prompt debate among theologians, but quickly gained the support of many common Germans.

• Trial at the Diet of Worms (1521): Luther was condemned as a heretic and excommunicated after refusing to recant.

Political Context and Support for Luther

• Many German princes supported Luther to weaken papal power and consolidate their own authority.

• Earlier reformers like John Wycliffe and Jan Huss provided groundwork for Luther’s ideas, but the printing press was crucial for disseminating his messages.

John Calvin and Calvinism

• John Calvin established a Protestant reform movement in Switzerland:

  • Promoted predestination and the elect; salvation is God's choice, and good works are a natural outcome of being among the elect.

  • Advocated a theocracy in Geneva, where church and state were intertwined, instituting strict moral codes.

  • Published The Institutes of the Christian Religion, outlining Protestant doctrine and further spreading through the printing press.

• Calvinism resulted in distinct branches such as Presbyterians, Huguenots, and Puritans.

Anabaptists

• Anabaptists differed by rejecting infant baptism; they believed in adult baptism after an individual's profession of faith.

• They also emphasized the separation of church and state and were often pacifists.

Religious Wars in Europe

• French Wars of Religion:

  • Huguenots: French Protestants who faced persecution, leading to the Massacre of Vassy (1562), and later the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) with thousands of Huguenots killed.

  • The War of the Three Henries ended with Henry IV issuing the Edict of Nantes (1598), providing Huguenots rights while establishing Catholicism as the state's religion.

• Thirty Years' War (1618-1648):

  • A complex conflict rooted in religious and political strife within the Holy Roman Empire.

  • Phases of the War:

  1. Bohemian Phase: Localized conflict leading to Protestant defeat.

  2. Danish Phase: Further Protestant challenges met with military defeat.

  3. Swedish Phase: Protestant resurgence under Gustavus Adolphus, supported by France politically despite Catholic alignment.

  4. French Phase: France intervened against the Habsburgs to curb their power.

  • Ended with the Peace of Westphalia, recognizing Calvinism and weakening the Holy Roman Emperor's power.

Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)

• The Catholic Church addressed internal corruption and sought to counter Protestantism through the Council of Trent (1545-1563):

  • Reaffirmed key doctrines while correcting certain practices like simony and the sale of indulgences.

  • Established new religious orders such as the Jesuits for education and missionary work, notably in Asia and the Americas.

Social Changes and Gender Roles

• Social hierarchy became more fluid due to the rise of wealth among merchants.

  • Land ownership maintained prestige, and social status began to shift with education.

• Patriarchy remained dominant, but debates about women's roles surfaced during the Reformation era.

• The witchcraft craze of the 16th and 17th centuries reflected societal fears, disproportionately targeting women as witches, resulting in thousands of executions.

Artistic Developments

• Mannerism and Baroque emerged:

  • Mannerism: Artistic style aimed to express emotion and drama, exemplified by Michelangelo's works.

  • Baroque: Developed as a Catholic response during the Counter-Reformation, with opulent styles to convey church power and influence, best represented by artists like Peter Paul Rubens.

Understanding the Protestant Reformation and the connected wars is essential to grasp the transformative nature of religious beliefs and political power in Europe during this critical period of history.