Background Information

• Rome was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus and Remus.

• The Roman Republic existed from 509 - 27 BCE.

• The Roman Empire existed from 27 BCE - 410 CE.

• Capitoline Wolf depicts a scene from the legend of the founding of Rome. Twins Romulus and Remus were cast into the river Tiber by Amulius who overthrew their grandfather Numitor. The twins were then rescued by a she-wolf who cared for them.

• The Romans had a rich culture full of written literature such as epics, poetry, and dramas. Furthermore, Roman art took inspiration from other ancient civilizations. Whereas their architecture borrows from other cultures, they made noticeable innovations to construction and design. Many of the Hellenistic Greek sculptures that survive to this day is because of Roman copies that were created.

• The Romans had a polytheistic belief system.

• Roman art exemplifies Republican and later Imperial values.

• Romans created large public monuments.

• The Romans were skilled diplomats with a strong military; wars allowed for the expansion of the Roman Empire.

  • The first rulers were kings who were later overthrown by the senate. They established the republic, though not what it is today.

• Early buildings were created without mortar, only stone. This is known as ashlar masonry. Perfectly cuts allow for the stones to be “locked in” place.

• By extending the arch, Roman architects were able to create the tunnel vault known as the barrel vault. Arches and vaults make colossal buildings such as the Colosseum possible. They also allow for expansive interior spaces as is the case with the Pantheon.

  • Intersecting barrel vaults at right angles creates a groin vault. The four corners supported the groin vault with the use of piers.

  • Spandrels are the spaces between the arches on the piers.

• The center of Roman business was conducted at the forum, the large public space with civic buildings. These also contained temples for the worship of their gods, public baths, markets. The plural of forum is known as fora.

• In addition to the popular Greek orders (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) the Romans added the Tuscan column. These had no fluting and a Doric style capital.

  • The composite column was introduced which is a mix of Ionic, Corinthian motifs in the capitols.

• Romans perfected the use of concrete and were the first to use as a structural material.

  • Concrete allowed the Romans to build wherever they wanted unlike the Greeks who were limited to the natural landscape to determine their architecture. Romans changed the landscape, eliminated hills, and filled in lakes to suit their construction.

• Romans came from everywhere; it was a multicultural society.

• Romans had social classes, but these were on a moving scale. If you were Greek, citizenship was not an option for most. For Romans, even a slave could become a freeman, his children were automatically full citizens of Rome.

Required Works

39. House of the Vettii. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman. c. Second Century BCE; rebuilt c. 62–79 CE. Cut stone and fresco. 3 images

    • First Style of Roman Mural Painting: The earliest, also known as Masonry Style, because the aim was to imitate using painted stucco relief, the appearance of costly marble panels.

    • Second Style of Roman Mural Painting: the aim was to dissolve the confining walls of a room and replace them with the illusion of a three-dimensional world constructed in the artist’s imagination.

    • Third Style of Roman Mural painting delicate and ornamental decorations, often featuring monochromatic panels and smaller, isolated motifs.

    • Fourth Style of Roman Mural painting is marked by a return to architectural illusionism; however, these are irrational fantasies not realistic.

    • Rooms:

      • Ostium – main entrance

      • Vestibulum (fauces) – main entrance hall

      • Fauces – hallway found deeper in the domus

      • Tabernae – single room shop

      • Atrium – open room where guest were greeted

      • Compluvium – roof over atrium meant to guide rainwater to the impluvium

      • Impluvium – where the rainwater collects

      • Tablinum – an office / a “living” open to the atrium that could be closed off.

      • Triclinium – dining room

      • Alea – open rooms or alcoves

      • Cubiculum – bedrooms

      • Culina – kitchen

      • Posticum – servants' entrance

      • Peristylium – open courtyard

      • Piscina – pool meant for bathing

      • Exedra – large room off the peristyle courtyard

    • The House of the Vettii was excavated late 1894 through 1896.

      • The brothers Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus owned it, they were freemen (liberti) or former slaves.

        • Conviva was an Augustulis – a top civic office a freeman could hold.

        • Nouveau Riche – those who have recently acquired wealth.

        • The brothers had two strongboxes which were used as signs of wealth and placed prominently in the atrium for all to see.

        • The house is a good example of a property owned by the commercial middle class as opposed to the aristocracy of Pompeii

      • Small room off atrium – decorated in the Fourth Style. The lower level has four square panels each depicting a mythological scene.

    • Marine Frieze Cubicle

      • Left of the entrance the small room has depictions of lobsters, mullets.

      • Below the frieze are painting depicting the Awakening of Ariadne and

        Leander crossing the Hellespont

    • Image 39a: Pentheus Room, Imperial Roman, 62-79 CE., Fresco, Pompeii, Italy

      • The triclinium or Roman dining room contained many scenes around the room with the main scene that of the death of the Greek hero Pentheus who was opposed to the cult of Bacchus. Bacchus (g. Dionysus) was the roman god of agriculture, wine and fertility.

      • Women tear Pentheus apart including his mother; two women pull at his hair. His arms are stretched emphasizing his nakedness.

        • Dionysus persuaded Pentheus, disguised as a woman, to spy on Bacchic female rites, expecting sexual activity. The women noticed him on a tree and believed he was wild animal. They lowered from the tree and dismembered him.

40. Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun, Pompeii. Republican Roman. c. 100 BCE. Mosaic.

    • The Alexander Mosaic as seen on the wall of the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli; the Alexander Mosaic, created in the 2nd century B.C.E., from the House of the Faun in Pompeii.

    • Alexander Mosaic (8 ft 11 in × 16 ft 10 in) is made up of approximately 1.5 million tesserae, which are small, cubed pieces of glass or stones cut into shape. The mostly earth-colored stones are remarkably tiny and used to emphasize the details of the scene.

    • They are laid down in a style known as opus vermiculatum, a technique which is identified as “wormlike” due to the curved lines of tesserae placed to emphasize features and figures within the work.

    • Radical foreshortening: the use of shading to convey a sense of mass and volume enhance the naturalistic effect of the scene.

      • Repeated diagonal spears, clashing metal, and the crowding of men and horses evoke the din of battle. At the same time, action is arrested by dramatic details such as the fallen horse and the Persian soldier in the foreground who watches his own death throes reflected in a shield.

    • The Roman Alexander Mosaic is thought to be a copy of a late fourth-century BCE large scale Greek fresco or panel painting. Its fine detail and distinguishable features of Alexander the Great during a tumultuous conflict demonstrate the mastery of Greek painters towards the conclusion of the Greek Classical era.

    • The Alexander Mosaic is a Roman floor mosaic from the House of the Faun at Pompeii, dating from around 100 BCE. The Battle of Issus, which took place between Alexander the Great's forces and King Darius III of Persia, is depicted on the mosaic.

    • Found between two peristyles (open courtyards) lined with columns. The House of Faun is over 30,000 square ft.

42. Head of a Roman patrician. Republican Roman. c. 75–50 BCE. Marble.

    • Veristic sculpture: a bust of a nobleman, extremely realistic even if unflattering to the subject.

      • The veristic sculpture is from the Republican period.

      • Funerary function as altars, vignettes including portraits, bust, reliefs, and cinerary (holding the ashes of the deceased) urns.

      • Portraits and bust are housed in family shrine.

    • Realism of the bust is influenced by Greek Hellenistic and late Etruscan style.

      • The face has deep crevices, strong features, hanging flesh; all traits associated with experience and wisdom.

      • Republican virtues of stoicism, determination and foresight are the goal of the republican sculpture. Most of the surviving bust are of men, mostly elderly.

      • This portrait head from Otricoli dates to the middle of the first century BCE.

      • The subject's name is unknown, but the portrait depicts a powerful male aristocrat with a hooked nose and strong cheekbones.

43. Augustus of Prima Porta. Imperial Roman. Early first century CE. Marble.

    • Contrapposto pose, which can be referenced with Doryphoros.

    • Heroic, grand, over sized, and commanding since the sculpture is seven feet tall and stands in an oratorical pose.

      • Meant to be placed against a wall as the back is uncarved.

      • Found in a villa owned by someone named Livia, it is thought that she commissioned to work to honor her husband.

      • He stands barefoot, like the gods stepping on sacred ground

    • Also, historians also believe it was commissioned by emperor Tiberius, Livia’s son who was a diplomat.

    • Roman art was intricately linked with politics.

      • A marble freestanding sculpture, standing in a contrapposto pose, wearing military regalia. His right arm is extended, as if addressing troops.

      • Idealized view of the emperor, stark contrast to the head of the roman patrician.

      • His breastplate has gods who are returning to Pax Romana. The breastplate also shows that he is a warrior, the robe shows him as a civic ruler.

        • May have been carrying a sword in his left hand and laurel branches in his right.

    • At the base at his side is a cupid riding a dolphin-illustrating his descent from Venus, or his naval victories over Mark Antony and Cleopatra.

    • When this sculpture was created Augustus was in his late middle ages.

    • The art of the Romans was typically styled after that of their Greek predecessors.

    • Augustus is portrayed like the perfect figure of a Greek athlete: he looks vigorous and manly

    • Many features and symbols on his chest like sphinxes (symbolizes defeat of Cleopatra), the female representation of Pax Romana, Tellus (earth goddess symbolizing fertility), Apollo and Diana (gods are on his side). This list is not exhaustive.

    • Cultural Comparison

      • Despite their differing historical circumstances, Mao Zedong's Long March and Augustus of Primaporta's statue are political propaganda. Both helped shape public opinion, consolidate political power, and promote ideologies.

44. Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater). Rome, Italy. Imperial Roman. 70–80 CE. Stone and concrete.

    • View from the street would have been monumental arches, carved travertine, all with statues and fountains spilling out water.

    • Described as a gigantic donut the inside is an arena, which translates in Latin to sand.

    • Named the Flavian Amphitheater because he paid for it. The name Colosseum name came later not because of its size but because it was so close to the colossal statue of Nero.

    • Romans were able to build the circle structure using arches and concrete. It took ten years to complete and contained seating for 50,000- 80,000 spectators.

      • Roman numerals on the top part of the ground floor arches to guide the assigned seating that was given.

      • Seating assigned according to status with the most important seated closest to the arena. Three stories have arches and different styles orders of columns. Fourth floor is closed with only windows for light.

    • Bottom floor arches framed with Tuscan columns, like the Doric but with a base; the second story has Ionic columns and the third story has Corinthian columns

    • Second and third floors would have had statues in the arches. Top floor decorated with bronze shields in between the windows

45. Forum of Trajan. Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106–112 CE; column completed 113 CE. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column).

    • Trajan had a hill moved to make space for his Forum

      • Marcus Ulpius Traianus, aka Trajan, was Rome’s emperor from 99 until 117 CE. He had a military background Part Italic, part Hispanic from the Ulpian family from the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, modern day Spain.

    • Trajan had bestowed upon him the epithetical title of Potimus Princeps or “the best first-citizen.”

    • Trajan was the first in the line of emperors that were chosen for the job. The last in this line of chosen emperors was Marcus Aurelious.

    • Known as the Forum of Trajan, the architectural complex is devoted to his career and in particular to his military success in his war against Dacia, present day Romania.

    • The Forum is the last, and the largest of Rome’s complexes of an imperial seat.

      • A forum is a public, urban square for civic and ritual business.

      • Imperial forums began with Julius Caesar in 46 BCE.

    • The Forum of Trajan was inaugurated in 112 CE., though probably not completed. It was designed by architect Apollodorus of Damascus.

      • Apollodorus of Damascus was a military engineer and architect who accompanied the emperor on his campaigns in Dacia. He designed and had built a bridge across the Danube river. A segmental arch bridge allowed the soldiers to cross the river.

    • All the structures except for the libraries that were brick, were built of stone. Large amounts of exotic and imported marbles and many statues, some of which are gilded.

    • The main square of the forum measured 200 x 120 meters (656 x 393 feet) and was flanked by porticoes, as well as exedrae (semicircular, recessed spaces on the eastern and western sides).

    • Upon Trajan’s death he was deified and thus the emperor was declared a god. His temple was placed directly behind the column.

    • The southern end of the forum abuts the retaining wall of the neighboring forum of Augustus.

    • At the center of the forum complex, the massive Basilica Ulpia stands in between the two libraries.

    • The main square of the forum was surrounded with architecture and paved in white marble. Several rows of trees, maybe some statues, ran parallel to the porticoes.

    • Statues that would have been in the porticoes would have included statues of the captured Dacian prisoners. Along the roof of the colonnades there would have been gilded statues of horses and representations of military standards.

    • The basilica is uniquely Roman and served for various civic and juridical purposes. Massive and monumental, the Basilica Ulpia was constructed at the northern edge of the courtyard, bisecting the complex, and the portico-lined courtyard lie to the east and the libraries and the column of trajan to the west.

      • It has an apse at both ends, a raised central floor, the main hall has a double surround of 96 columns. The material of columns was probably white or yellow marble and they were most likely of the Corinthian order.

        • apse: a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome.

    • The Markets of Trajan were a separate architectural complex that was a multilevel complex. Today there are 170 rooms in the complex that covers a space of approximately 110 x 150 meters. Walls were 35 meters above the level of the pavement of the Forum of Trajan.

    • Roman structures were meant to establish a sense of identity and ideology.

    • Trajan’s Column

      • Its interior has a spiral staircase; it is hollow inside.

      • The column has 22 different layers, not panels because they spiral around.

      • Depicts a narrative of the two main campaigns of the war with the Dacians. Some of the scenes are the Romans building their camps, building bridges, building fortifications. When the soldiers left the people were left with cities and roads built by the Romans.

      • On the column, the Danube river is represented by a bearded, half-naked men. An obelisk represents the Nile river and naturally, the Tiber River is represented by a she-wolf.

      • The base of the column, the typical Dacian weapons and cuirasses (apiece of armor consisting of breastplate and backplate fastened together) are represented. At the base are all the weapons of the defeated and a laurel wreath.

      • There are 22 layers; each of which are 36” tall. The column would have been painted.

      • The column shows us how Roman sculpture were used to narrate Roman military victories.

      • The hollow column with the banded narrative as seen with the Column of Trajan is a Roman innovation.

      • Trajan's Column has a statue of St. Peter installed by a Renaissance pope on top, which towers over the ruins of Trajan's Forum.

46. Pantheon. Imperial Roman, 118-125 CE., Concrete with stone facing, Rome, Italy.

    • The Pantheon has two pediments and a frieze with an inscription stating “Marcus Agrippa, son of Licius, having been consul three times, built it.”

      • This inscription on the frieze has deceived historians as to the true patron of thids work. It has been determined that it was Emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138 CE) who commissioned this work. The Pantheon was built between 118 and 128 CE.

      • The original Pantheon was damaged by a fire in 110 CE., Trajan was going to rebuild it but he did not get very far because of he died. Then, Hadrian picked up where he left off.

    • The interior floor is convex (curves outward) to allow for drainage. Square panels on the floor and in the coffers of the dome are contrasted by the roundness of the walls.

    • Coffers are adorned with rosettes to imitate stars. The oculus is 27 feet wide which allows for sunlight and air to flood the interior. The height of the Pantheon is equal to the width. Based on a circle.

    • Walls have seven niches for statues of the gods. Originally it was heavily decorated.

    • Pantheon is Greek for “all gods”. It originally had an atrium and the building itself was on a podium. However, modern Rome has been built up to its level.

    • The cupola walls are 20 feet thick.

47. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus. Late Imperial Roman, c. 250 CE. Marble, National Roman Museum, Rome

    • Horror vacui: “the fear of empty spaces”; is a type of artwork in which the entire surface is filled with objects, people, designs, and ornaments in a crowded, sometimes congested way.

      • The figures are one on top of another with a complete abandon of classical tradition.

    • The figures lack individuality; it presents the interment of the deceased who was probably a wealthy elite with a decorated military background

    • Content presents the roman army defeating bearded barbarians.

      • The Romans are noble and heroic; the goths are unattractive.

      • A Roman youth is at the center top without weapons or a helmet, riding a wild horse that he controls, proving that he is invincible.

      • Named after Cardinal Ludovici’s collection in Rome.

      • Rome was at war throughout the third century.