Art and Empire

Art and Empire in the Long Eighteenth Century

The long eighteenth century (roughly 1700–1800) was a period marked by the expansion of European empires, particularly the British Empire, and the deepening of colonialism, which significantly influenced art and visual culture of the time. Let’s break down the major themes of representations of African slaves, luxury and materialism, and the depiction of India and cultural cross-dressing in the art of this period. We will also discuss Governor General Cornwallis's reforms within the East India Company.

1. Representations of African Slaves and Servants in Art

In the 18th century, European art often portrayed African slaves and servants in the context of wealth, power, and colonial expansion. However, these representations were complex and often reflected the invisibility of Black people in aristocratic and elite society. In aristocratic portraiture, Black individuals were sometimes included as attendants or background figures to highlight the social status and luxury of the elite. This practice reflected the hierarchical racial structures of the time, where African slaves were seen as an integral yet subordinate part of the colonial system.

• "The visible invisibility of Black people in aristocratic portraiture" explores how Black individuals were often portrayed in a way that emphasized their status as servants or property, rather than as people with their own identity or agency. These depictions, while contributing to the visibility of African presence in Europe, often obscured the true experiences of enslaved individuals by focusing on their service and subordination.

• "Repositioning the voices of enslaved people through art" examines how artworks can be reinterpreted to give voice to enslaved people, challenging traditional narratives and recognizing their humanity and contributions to the wealth of the European elite.

Key Example:

• David Martin’s Portrait of Dido Elizabeth Belle Lindsay and Lady Elizabeth Murray (1778): This painting features Dido Elizabeth Belle, the daughter of an African enslaved woman and a British naval officer, placed alongside Lady Elizabeth Murray, the daughter of an aristocratic family. The portrait highlights the complexity of race and class in the 18th century, as Dido is portrayed with dignity and prominence, yet the context of her mixed-race heritage and the racial hierarchies of the time are essential to understanding the painting.

2. Discourse on Luxury: Criticism vs. Praise of Colonial Goods

In the 18th century, the consumption of luxury goods from the colonies—such as tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, china, and silk—became both a symbol of status and a point of moral criticism. Many artworks from this period reflect the tensions between the pursuit of luxury and the moral corruption associated with the wealth derived from colonial exploitation.

Criticism of Moral Corruption:

• Critics of colonialism in the 18th century viewed the demand for luxury goods from the colonies as a sign of moral decay. These goods were often produced through the exploitation of enslaved Africans and indigenous peoples, leading to materialism, greed, and trivial pursuits. Philosophers and writers like Adam Smith and Montesquieu criticized the way colonial wealth led to the degradation of European society, as people became obsessed with consuming exotic goods, at the expense of virtue and civic responsibility.

Praise of Overseas Trade and Colonial Possessions:

• On the other hand, many elites celebrated the benefits of colonial expansion, including the riches brought back to Europe through trade. Artists and writers highlighted the wealth and cultural exchange that came from colonial possessions. The growth of global trade networks, especially the triangular trade (which involved slaves, raw materials, and manufactured goods), became a source of European prosperity.

3. Representations of India: Cultural Cross-Dressing and Mixed Marriages

India, as a major colony of the British Empire, was often represented in 18th-century art, where depictions of cultural cross-dressing (European appropriation of Indian styles) and mixed marriages were common themes. These depictions reflected the interactions between British colonialists and the local cultures of India.

Cultural Cross-Dressing:

• Cultural cross-dressing refers to the fashion and behavior of Europeans adopting Indian clothing, customs, and decor. This was seen in the portraits of British officials in India, where they were often shown wearing Indian attire or with Indian objects, which served to demonstrate their dominance over Indian culture while simultaneously indulging in its exotic appeal.

Mixed Marriages:

• The phenomenon of mixed marriages between British men and Indian women was also depicted in art. These marriages often symbolized the entanglement of British imperialism with local cultures. Mixed-race children, like Dido Elizabeth Belle, were occasionally included in portraiture, though their representations were often subject to the racial norms of the time.

Key Example:

• The Palmer Family Portrait: This portrait shows Major William Palmer, a British official in India, and his family. One of the most notable aspects of the painting is the presence of a mixed-race child, reflecting the blending of British and Indian cultures, and signaling the complex racial and social dynamics of colonial India.

4. Governor General Cornwallis’s Reforms in the East India Company

In the late 18th century, Governor General Cornwallis implemented a series of reforms in the East India Company, shaping both the governance of India and the role of colonial civil servants.

Race-Conscious Policies:

• Cornwallis introduced race-conscious policies that aimed to create a distinct hierarchy within the East India Company. He promoted racial segregation within the colonial administration, establishing a system where British officials and employees were separated from Indians, even in administrative roles. This policy sought to maintain British control over the governance of India and was a reflection of the growing racial distinctions in colonial practices.

Colonial Civil Servants:

• Cornwallis's reforms also included the creation of a new type of colonial civil servant, who was not only a bureaucrat but also a representative of the British Empire. These individuals were expected to enforce colonial policies, manage trade, and uphold British authority, often in a hierarchical system that emphasized the superiority of British officials over the native population.

5. Useful Links for Further Exploration

·       The Visible Invisibility of Black People in Aristocratic Portraiture: The article examines how Black individuals were portrayed in 18th and 19th-century European aristocratic portraits. It discusses the concept of "visible invisibility", where Black people are present in these artworks, often as servants or attendants, but their identities are obscured and their humanity marginalized. These portraits typically reinforced racial hierarchies and the wealth of the aristocracy derived from colonialism and slavery. While some Black individuals, like Dido Elizabeth Belle, were depicted with more dignity, such representations were rare. The article emphasizes how these paintings reflect the racial and colonial systems of the time, highlighting the exploitation that supported European elite society.

·       Repositioning the Voices of Enslaved People through Art: ocuses on how art can help give visibility and agency to enslaved individuals who were often silenced in historical records. It discusses how portraits, sculptures, and other artistic representations of enslaved people can challenge traditional narratives by acknowledging their humanity and role in history. The article highlights how recent curatorial efforts aim to reclaim the stories of enslaved individuals, shedding light on their lives and contributions, especially in the context of European colonialism. Through art, these representations can shift from passive depictions to empowering narratives that bring the voices of enslaved people to the forefront.

·       1778 – David Martin, Portrait of Dido Elizabeth Belle Lindsay and Lady Elizabeth Murray: The article discusses the 1778 portrait of Dido Elizabeth Belle Lindsay and Lady Elizabeth Murray, painted by David Martin. The painting is significant because it portrays Dido, the mixed-race daughter of an enslaved woman and a British naval officer, alongside Lady Elizabeth, her cousin and the daughter of a prominent aristocrat. The portrait is notable for depicting Dido in a dignified manner, challenging racial stereotypes of the time. It explores the complex social dynamics of 18th-century Britain, where Dido, though part of the British aristocracy, still faced racial and societal limitations due to her heritage. The painting serves as a powerful representation of the intersection of race, class, and gender in the context of British colonial history.

·       The Palmer Family: discusses a portrait of Major William Palmer and his family, currently displayed at the British Library. The portrait, dating to the 18th century, features Major Palmer, his wife, and their children, with a notable inclusion of an enslaved African servant in the background. The presence of the enslaved individual in this portrait reflects the social and economic realities of the time, particularly the role of slavery in the British colonial system. This portrayal highlights the intersection of race, class, and power during the era, illustrating how enslaved people were often visible in the context of wealthy families yet remained marginalized and invisible in other ways. The painting offers insights into the complex dynamics of race and imperialism in colonial Britain, as well as the ways in which art both recorded and reinforced social hierarchies.

By understanding how art, colonialism, and race intersect in the 18th century, we can better grasp the ways in which visual culture both reflected and shaped colonial ideologies, as well as the racialized systems of power that developed during this time.