Motivation and Theories of Behavior

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Overview of Exam Performance

  • Exam averages typically trend lower with each successive exam (first, second, third).
  • Historically, exam three has minimal or no curve.
  • Students tend to perform notably better in exam four, even though the content is perceived as more interesting.
  • Students often comment on their memory of content long after the course, indicating the lasting impact of certain topics.

• Grade Calculation Details

  • Midterm grades are based on the second test; students should check Canvas for updates on grades.
  • Current policy: lowest test grade is included in average.
  • For midterm grades, the lowest test grade is dropped, impacting around 20% of the class with grade discrepancies.
  • Final exams are optional in the sense that they replace the lowest test scores; zeros from missed exams will be dropped after the final.
  • Important to understand that dropping the lowest grade does not guarantee a favorable outcome if the final is not taken.

• New Unit Start

  • No reading quiz on the introduction day; a quiz on modules 29 and 30 is due Wednesday.
  • This unit will last for a couple of weeks and covers motivational theories.
  • The current lecture is described as dense and theoretically loaded but serves to prepare students for later discussions.

• Topics for Discussion

  • Focus on theories of motivation, with emphasis on behaviors related to hunger and sexual arousal.
  • Only the more interesting parts of hunger and eating behavior will be explored, often considered more engaging than sexual motivation.
  • Major divisions of motivational theories:
  1. Biological
  2. Psychological
  3. Biopsychosocial

Chapter 2: The Biological Theory

• Instinct Theory

  • Instincts defined: Fixed patterns of behavior present in most members of a species.
  • Human behaviors primarily explained by instincts may involve survival.
  • Sociobiologists identify numerous instincts (over 10,000 across species).

• Drive Reduction Theory

  • Understanding drive reduction requires knowing homeostasis: a balanced internal state.
  • Homeostasis is disrupted, creating biological needs (e.g., hunger).
  • Hunger as a motivation emerges from physiological necessity, urging goal-directed behavior (eating) to restore homeostasis.
  • Illustrated by the cycle: eat -> hungry -> eat again, repeating this physiological need.

• Role of the Hypothalamus

  • The hypothalamus is seen as the on/off switch for feelings of hunger, not the director of hunger itself.
  • It reacts to biological signals indicating hunger and satiation.

Chapter 3: The Right Side

• Yerkes-Dodson Law
  • This law dictates an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal levels and performance.
  • Optimal arousal levels can enhance performance; too much or too little impairs it.
  • Examples:
  • Excessive test anxiety decreases performance.
  • Low motivation due to boredom can lead to poor outcomes.
  • For peak performance, moderate levels of arousal are essential.

Chapter 4: Interesting Psychological Theories

• Incentive Theory

  • Defines motivation as a pull towards rewards (the carrot) in contrast to the push from biological drives.
  • Examples include studying for a degree or seeking tangible rewards like money.

• Expectancy Theory

  • Focus on expectations influencing motivation.
  • Belief that effort will yield success enhances motivation.
  • A lack of faith in outcomes leads to decreased motivation.

• Attribution Theory

  • Differences in attributing success (internal attribution) versus failure (external attribution).
  • People often credit successes to their efforts and failures to external circumstances.
  • The fundamental attribution error highlights the difference between self and others in attributing actions or failures.

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

  • Needs are arranged in a pyramid with lower needs (e.g., physiological) at the bottom and higher needs (e.g., self-actualization) at the top.
  • Needs must be fulfilled sequentially: if lower needs (like hunger) aren't met, higher needs (like esteem) cannot be pursued effectively.
  • This theory outlines why certain social programs and environment safety are vital for learning.

Chapter 5: Conclusion

• Flexibility of Motivation
  • Theories of motivation reflect the complexity and adaptiveness of human behavior in response to a variety of needs.
  • Motivation can derive from intrinsic (internal satisfaction) versus extrinsic (external rewards) sources, with intrinsic often yielding better persistence and engagement.
  • Achievement motivation is related to an individual's preference for tasks with moderate difficulty and correlates with persistent effort and competitiveness.