VCE Environmental Science Unit 3 Summary Notes/Cue Cards

Biodiversity refers to all living things that make up life on Earth, including:

• Ecosystems - consists of biotic and abiotic components and the interactions between them (including processes).

• Species - a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

• Genes - a unit of genetic material is DNA.

Genetic Diversity - Genetic variation is a measure of the genetic differences that exist between species and between individuals of the same species.

Species Diversity - Having a number of different species on Earth, a number of individuals within each species, and a variety of species within a habitat or region. (Used as an indicator of ecosystem health).

Ecosystem Diversity - Variety of habitats, natural communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere. The variety of ecosystems in a given place.

The maintenance of genetic diversity is essential for natural selection, adaptation, and survival. The capacity to adapt to changes in an environment (from selection pressures).

Factors affecting genetic diversity in populations:

• Inbreeding - Breeding between individuals that are closely related genetically. Increases the chances of deleterious recessive alleles being expressed from their shared genes resulting in inbreeding depression (reducing survival rates and reproductive success - reduced fitness of the population).

• Mutation & Natural Selection - Natural selection acts to reduce the frequency of harmful or deleterious alleles in the population. New alleles from mutations give members of a species and their offspring the best chance of surviving and hence reproducing to pass on the advantageous gene.

• Genetic Drift - When the allele frequency in a population is determined by random events rather than by natural selection, alleles may be eliminated from a population by chance, or rare alleles may become widespread (even if they are deleterious). It is only in small populations that chance plays a significant enough role in survival to occur.

• Extinction - If changes in the environment happen relatively quickly, the process of evolution may not be quick enough for a population to adapt, and species and populations die out.

• Genetic Swamping - Environmental disruption caused by human activities may bring populations of a species that once were geographically isolated into contact with another. The populations may interbreed and produce hybrids. If one of the interbreeding populations is small in number and the number of hybrids is large, the genes of the more numerous population can spread throughout the smaller population - genetic diversity of the smaller population is lost in the process.

• Demographic Variation - Conditions (chance factors) will operate on a number of demographic measures such as birth rate, death rate, and sex ratio. The chance variation away from the average is likely to be greater in small populations than in big ones. Over time, this demographic variation may contribute to genetic variation.

• Loss of Keystone Species - Biodiversity loss can result in the removal of certain species that are critical for the survival of other organisms. (e.g. plants with birds for pollination or species in symbiotic relationships - parasitism (one benefits, one harmed), commensalism (one benefits, one has no effect), and mutualism (both benefit).

Diversity allows for:

• Provisioning Services - Products obtained from ecosystems and used directly by humans. (Potable water, food, fuel, fibre, and pharmaceuticals).

• Regulating Services - The benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes. (Control of climate and disease, pollination, and water purification).

• Supporting Services - Services that allow for the other ecosystem services to be present. They have indirect impacts on humans that last over a long period of time. (Some supporting services can also be regulating or provisioning). (Cycling of nutrients, soil formation, and photosynthesis).

• Cultural Services - Research and education, recreation, cultural values, aesthetic values (Aesthetic values, recreational benefits, and sense of place).

Fossils are the remains of past life preserved in rock, soil, or amber. For fossilisation to occur it needs to be covered quickly by sediment, undergo rapid sedimentation, happen prior to the organism decomposing, be left for a long time, sediments under increased pressure and temperature turn it to sedimentary rock, then be dug up. They show what things lived in different time periods and the rate/extent of changes to biodiversity over long periods of time.

Dating of Fossils:

• Relative Dating - Layers (strata) of sedimentary or volcanic rock in the lower strata were formed before rock in the upper strata. Assumes that the fossil is the same age as the rock.

• Absolute (Numerical or Radioactive) Dating - Over time a radioactive isotope decays from one element to another. Using the rate of decay to calculate how long ago the minerals solidified.

Endemic - native and restricted to a certain place.

Species Endemism - a species that lives in a restricted geographical area and nowhere else. (e.g. the Tasmanian devil).

Biodiversity Hotspots - A biogeographic region with a large species diversity that has lost at least 70% of its natural vegetation due to human activity.

Environmental variation:

Changes to the environment over short, medium, and long time scales produce a range of outcomes for species and ecosystems.

Changes:

• Short-term changes (e.g. fire, floods, tsunami, drought, earthquake, volcanic eruption)

• Medium-term changes  (e.g. El Nino-Southern Oscillation ENSO). Some species will adjust their geographic range in order to find more favourable conditions.

• Long-term changes (e.g. Ocean warming from climate change, evolution, continental plate movement).

Evolution - a gradual change of the inherited characteristics of a population over time, resulting in the development of a new species.

Sampling using quadrats obtains quantitative information about the composition and structure of plant or sessile animal communities. The number of quadrats should make up 10% of the total area being studied.

• Random Sampling - To study the particular community without bias. Plots are randomly located. (Place grid lines, randomly select 2 numbers for horizontal and vertical, mark and repeat until you have enough plots).

• Systematic Sampling - To observe the changes in an environment over a given distance. Requires the quadrats to be placed in a line as evenly as possible. (Rule a line on a map, place quadrats at equal intervals along it).

Sampling Edge Effects - sometimes a plant crosses the edge of a quadrat and a decision has to be made whether it should be counted or not. Using a circle minimises sampling edge effects, however, the area of the circle is more difficult to calculate. (Overestimation of population size can occur when these edge specimens are counted).

Techniques for Sampling Mammals:

Mammals are a useful group to study because they are well-known both biologically and taxonomically and their ecological requirements are known. Their presence, absence, or abundance can be used to indicate the state of the environment.

• Indirect Signs - species droppings, tracks, feeding signs, burrows, food remains, and the remains of bodies.

• Spotlighting - At night hearing and viewing a species with a torch/spotlight. (White light is best for detection, red is often used when viewing animals for prolonged amounts of time).

• Direct Observation - Observed directly during the day or by setting camera traps.

• Live Trapping - Small mammals trapped in collapsible or wire mesh cages with bait. Most reliable data because it can be positively identified and gives additional data like sex and weight. However it interferes with their lives and should be restricted (and needs a permit).

• Capture-mark-recapture - To estimate a population size. A sample of the population is captured, marked, and released. Later, another sample is captured, and the number of marked individuals within this second sample is counted. The number of marked individuals within the second sample should be proportional to the number of marked individuals in the whole population. This method is most useful when it is not practical to count all the individuals in the population.

Estimate the total population size using . Where M = sample 1, N = population size, m = seconds sample that were already marked, n = second sample. ().

Measurement of Species Diversity:

Species Richness - the number of different species present in a particular region. It doesn’t give a full picture of diversity because it ignores the genetic variation that may be present within the species, only partially represents ecosystem diversity, and ranks all species equally so rare ones count the same as common or introduced species.

Species Diversity - a measure that takes into account the relative abundance of each species present (species evenness - how many of each species) as well as the number of different species. Communities have a higher diversity if species occurring within a particular trophic level are present in roughly equal numbers (not dominated by a few species).

Simpson's Index of Diversity (SID) is a measure of species diversity that is based on the probability of 2 specimens belonging to the same species.

SID = 1 -  (sum of species over the total) . Where ∑ = sum of. N = the number of organisms. n = the number of individual species.

Ranges from 0 (very low diversity) to a maximum of 1 (very high diversity).

Example:

Degree of Endemism - to examine the degree of endemism of the species present. (A species is considered to be endemic if it is native to that area only). So the endemism of the biodiversity of a region can be expressed as the percentage of endemic species present.

Vegetation Structure - the biodiversity of flora can be assessed (in terms of physical structure - size and shape of the plants). 2 characteristics are taken into account when classifying the vegetation structure of a community, the height of the tallest vegetation present and the projective foliage cover of the tallest level (or stratum) of vegetation (the percentage of the ground below the stratum that is covered (shaded) by the foliage of the plants in the stratum.

Risk assessment involves using data to estimate the probability of some harmful event occurring. It is an important part of environmental management (e.g. regulatory authorities setting maximum chemical levels based on data) and can be used in the conservation of biodiversity (e.g. estimating the probability of a species or population becoming extinct).

Estimating the risk of extinction - 2 approaches have been developed (with limited success):

1. The area of habitat necessary to maintain a given number of species (to estimate the number of species that can be maintained in a given area). This can be used to predict the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on species and to estimate the size of reserves necessary to preserve species.

2. Using collections of organisms in herbariums and museums to calculate the probability of a species being extinct.

This can be calculated by considering the time since the last collection or sighting, the time since the species was first collected, and the number of specimens collected. Estimates the relative threat of extinction from species.

Population Viability Analysis - This usually involves making a computer model of the population (e.g. age and structure, birth and death rates, migration, behavioural ecology, and competition) and likely sources of threats (e.g. environmental variation, demographic variation, and fragmentation). It generates a series of population projections and the probability of each of these occurring.

Different management strategies can be evaluated by comparing outcomes based on different inputs. It can also help determine a minimum viable population for a species (the smallest population that has a reasonable probability of surviving for some time into the future). This is useful for setting priorities and estimating the minimum size of a conservation reserve for a species.

Data Analysis - a simplified probability analysis of populations of a species to determine the overall likelihood of extinction of species in a given time frame.

(e.g. the probability of species A going extinct in the next 5 years according to the probability of extinction of its 2 remaining populations. Location 1 has 50% (0.5) probability, Location 2 has 80% (0.8) probability, thus the overall probability is 0.5x0.8=0.4 (40%)).

Conservation Status Categories:

Categorising species provides a framework for setting priorities to allocate the limited resources available for conservation. Ecologists classify species on a scale that reflects the degree of threat to them (an indicator of how likely a species is to live in the near future).

An aspect that is often used in assessing conservation status is how rare a species is, including 3 factors:

• Population size (the density/number of individuals within a local area - high to low).

• Geographic Range (the spatial distribution of the species - restricted to widespread).

• Specificity of Habitat (the variety of ecological conditions within which a species can survive - wide or general to specific or narrow).

Categories:

• Extinct - There is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.

• Extinct in the Wild (EW) - The taxon is known to survive in cultivation, in captivity, or as a naturalised population well outside its past range. Exhaustive surveys have failed to record an individual in the wild.

• Critically Endangered (CR) - The taxon is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.

• Endangered (EN) - The taxon is not critically endangered, but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future.

• Vulnerable (VU) - The taxon is not endangered, but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term future.

• Near Threatened (NT) - The taxon is close to meeting the threatened thresholds or would be threatened were it not for an ongoing taxon-specific conservation program.

• Least Concern (LC) - The taxon has been evaluated to have a low risk of extinction.

• Data Deficient - There is inadequate information to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution or population states.

• Not Evaluated - The taxon has not yet been assessed against the criteria.

In conservation planning it is important to consider biodiversity conservation on 4 levels:

• Conservation of Genetic Diversity - A species or population with a low level of genetic diversity is less able to respond to changes in its environment.

• Conservation of Population Diversity - The genetic composition of populations will vary as they adapt to the environment it occupies when populations are geographically separated. Thus it is important to preserve not just a single population of a species but a range which will encompass a greater range of genetic diversity.

• Conservation of Species Diversity - It is hard to determine (limitation) whether geographically isolated groups can interbreed and many defined species quite readily hybridise and thus do not strictly conform to the definition of species (groups that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring).

• Conservation of Ecosystem Diversity - The variety of ecosystems in a given place. Conservation at the landscape level enables the protection of an array of ecosystems and their associated species, genetic diversity, processes, and services. The greater the number and types of ecosystems present in the biosphere, the more resilient the environment.

Pressures from many different external factors that affect the environment can have a direct impact on the survival of organisms themselves, or they can also affect the environment the organism lives in, thus indirectly affecting the organisms survival.

• Modification - Habitat modification results from a change in local environmental conditions where the native habitat is changed in some way from its original condition (can be caused by natural events - volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, fires, cyclones, and by human-induced events - clearing of land for agricultural purposes, urbanisation, other land development). Then, habitat degradation is a reduction in the quality of a habitat, when the natural environment has been altered so dramatically that it no longer supports native species.

• Habitat Loss & Fragmentation - From activities that form barriers in a habitat. Large populations are reduced to several smaller ones, which are more susceptible to changes to their environment and have less diversity (inbreeding and diseases). The edges of the remnant vegetation area are most susceptible to impacts from the surrounding area due to human activity - the edge effect. (Narrow linear shape is bad because of its higher ratio of edge area and less core area, while circular is best).

• Over-exploitation - The result of human harvesting of food or the use of natural resources above a sustainable level. These processes result in the degradation and loss of habitats and ecosystems and the reduction of populations of species, making them vulnerable to changes.

• Inbreeding due to Small Population Size - Small isolated populations of organisms that are not carefully monitored are at risk of inbreeding. Reduced fertility and birth rates, reduced immune function resulting in increased susceptibility to disease, and increased risk of genetic disorders and mutations.

• Loss of Pollinators, Dispersal Agents, Host Species, or Symbionts - Biodiversity loss can lead to the removal of certain species that are critical for the survival of other organisms. (e.g. symbiotic relationships where different species live together, many plants rely on other organisms to distribute their pollen and seeds to reproduce).

• Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification of Pollutants - Pollutants are used in agricultural settings and then make their way into the natural environment where they impact organisms. Bioaccumulation is the build-up of persistent, non-degradable pollutants within an organism when it takes in more of the substance than its body can remove. Biomagnification is the increasing concentration of a pollutant along a food chain through the different trophic levels, thus organisms at higher trophic levels are more affected.

• Climate Change - Effects of climate change such as increasing global temperatures and frequency of extreme weather events have adverse effects on biodiversity and are likely to alter ecosystem structure and function. The extent of these impacts will depend on the capability of organisms to adapt, which is affected by the rate at which these changes occur and whether species can move to more suitable areas as their natural habitat changes.

• Disease - The spread of disease can decrease biodiversity. An ecosystem with lots of variation is more resilient to the impacts of diseases.

• Introduced Species - Species that have been introduced into a new region and compete with native species for niches and can act as predators. (e.g. as predators, degrading land/plants for food/shelter).

Conservation reserves are protected areas that are managed for nature conservation. There are different categories of reserves like national parks and other types that do not provide as high a level of protection. Reserves should be located in areas that will protect a region's biodiversity strategically instead of areas that are not wanted for other uses.

Clearing vegetation results in fragmentation where small patches of remnant vegetation remain among the cleared area.  A metapopulation is made up of all the local populations in each of the patches, they interact when individuals move between the populations. The local populations can undergo large fluctuations as they are confronted with different environmental variations, but the overall metapopulation will not vary as much.

Wildlife corridors are a way of improving the conservation potential of these fragments as they create  a network of linking remnant vegetation for wildlife to travel.

Reintroducing Plants & Animals:

Translocation is where plants or animals are returned to an area from which they have been eliminated or where their numbers are low. Reintroduction is where plants or animals are translocated to an area that used to be part of their range, but where none of that species remain.

Translocation and reintroduction can help overcome a reduction in the numbers of threatened species. They must be carefully researched and implemented to be effective (the genetic makeup of species should be similar to the original populations to survive). Ecological implications must be considered for both the reintroduced species and others at the reintroduction site. The reason for the initial decline should be understood and fixed or else it is futile.

Banking Genes:

A gene bank (or seed bank for plant species) provides future generations with a more complete and accurate record of now-threatened species that may become extinct (rather than just fossils). The process of collecting genetic samples and storing them is called gene banking. Preserving genetic material is important as endangered populations (and hence genetic diversity) shrinks. (e.g. if the only remaining species members were in a zoo the genetic material from the gene bank could be used to keep the species genetically diverse until it could be reintroduced into the wild).

Restoring Degraded Ecosystems:

A functioning ecosystem is a biological community plus all the abiotic factors influencing that community. A degraded ecosystem is lacking 1 or more essential abiotic components to an extent that has negative effects on its biological structure, composition, or function. Some approaches to renewing and regenerating degraded ecosystems include:

• Habitat Restoration - the process of repairing degraded ecosystems through human intervention. It requires an understanding of population genetics and ecological processes. To either recreate an ecosystem before it was degraded or to create a new ecosystem.

• Erosion Control - Erosion is the combination of processes that wear rock and soil from the land surface (caused by moving water (run-off), air (wind), ice (glaciers)). Commonly, vegetation planting is used in locations with loose soil that are susceptible to erosion because they are deep-rooted and fast-growing. They also help to ensure water run-off doesn’t form channels that speed water flow and increase erosion.

• Reintroduction of previously endemic species

Biodiversity Conservation - the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations.

The application of relevant international, national, state and local legal treaties, agreements and regulatory frameworks that apply to the protection of threatened species to conserve biodiversity.

International Agreements & Programs:

Domestic Legislation & Policies:

Value Systems:

Personal beliefs about biodiversity conservation are shaped by a person's underlying values. Understanding these beliefs shows how different people, communities, or nations value biodiversity conservation.

• Anthropocentrism - Regards humankind as the central or most important element of existence. This largely comes from the view that humans have a moral status or higher value than that of all other organisms.

• Biocentrism - Based on the premise that all living things have the right to exist. Biology is the central and driving science of the universe, and that humans are no more important than any other living things.

• Ecocentrism - Recognises that the ecosphere as being of central importance, and attempts to redress the impacts associated with anthropocentrism. Places the greatest intrinsic value on species and their natural environments (rather than on individual organisms).

• Technocentrism - Centred on technology and its ability to control and protect the environment, with environmental problems being seen as challenges to be solved using rational, scientific and technological means. Humans are separate from nature and are able to manage nature for humanity's advantage.

Social Justice - Poverty threatens wildlife conservation efforts in many parts of the world as many local communities are not included in the decision-making process and often have little understanding of the reasons why such conservation programs are being initiated. Integrating conservation programs with the development of local communities ensures that conservation programs are effective because if they benefit from being involved they are less likely to unwittingly undermine these programs.

Ecological Sustainable Development - development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Continues to satisfy human needs, while using fewer raw materials and producing less waste. ESD takes into account and weighs the overall benefits and impacts across 3 areas (environment, society, and economy).

Sustainability VS ESD - Sustainability refers to an ability or capacity of something to be maintained or to sustain itself. Sustainability is the long term goal, while ESD refers to the processes and pathways to achieve it (improving the quality of life now and in the future through development in a way that maintains the ecological processes on which life depends).

Zone of Sustainability - Meets the pillars of sustainability (environmental, social, and economic considerations). (Triangle divided into 3).

Ecological integrity assessments provide a standard biophysical examination that assesses how well an ecosystem is doing. These models provide critical information on factors that may be degrading, maintaining, or helping to restore an ecosystem.

Sustainability Principles:

• Efficient Resource Use - Use of smaller amounts of physical resources to produce the same product/service while minimising environmental impact.

• Intragenerational Equity - Preserving natural resources and the environment for the benefit of current generations. The equal distribution of and access to resources between people across the same generation, including different nations.

• Intergenerational Equity - Preserving natural resources and the environment for the benefit of future generations. Considers the impact of a development on future generations.

• The Precautionary Principle - A guideline for when the risk of harm to the environment due to a proposed action is high but the scientific evidence is uncertain, requiring that measures are taken to prevent environmental damage and that the proof of minimal harm is provided by the proposer. The nature of evidence needed when assessing the impact of developments.

• User Pays Principle - The user of a product/service pays directly for the amount they use, rather than the cost being shared by all the users or a community equally. The price of a natural resource/service should reflect its full cost so financial decisions of consumers lead to efficient allocation of resources (as cheaper options will have a lower environmental cost).

• Conservation of Biodiversity & Ecological Integrity - Maintenance of the abundance of different species living within a particular region, the genetic diversity in a population and the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its biotic and abiotic organisation and function in the face of changing environmental conditions, including a capacity for self-renewal.

The Precautionary Principle - Suggests that we should not allow anything to happen that could lead to the irreversible loss of biological resources (loss of a species or ecological process)  through ignorance (uncertainty or no evidence of harm cannot be an excuse) of the impact or because we think that a resource is of no value. Our responsibility to future generations implies that we need to maintain our biological resources because of their potential future use as well as their intrinsic value.

Challenges to Sustainability:

• Population - As Earth's population grows, so do the demands on the environment to support us, most importantly with regards to energy, food, and water (and we still need to consider the needs of other species).

• Food - The supply of food is vital for a growing population, requiring major land use for crops and livestock. This puts significant pressure on natural ecosystems and their biodiversity. Impacts can be minimised by increasing land productivity and consuming more sustainably.

• Water - The availability of water for humans (clean and fresh) and the environment. Impacts can be minimised by increasing storage (e.g. underground supplies) and responsible use of water

• Energy - Access to an adequate energy supply for economic, social, and cultural development and ultimately for access to basic resources. The increased demand for energy is putting increasing demand on its provision. Impacts can be minimised by reducing the use of non-renewable energy and shifting to using renewable energy sources.

A circular economy is continually seeking to reduce the environmental impacts of production and consumption by minimising resource use and avoiding waste and pollution (while maintaining the value people get from goods and services) through effective designs and practices. A closed-loop system where the waste outputs of one activity become the inputs for a different activity, aiming for no waste.

Integrated Sustainability Assessment:

A way to assess the long-term sustainability impacts of international and national government policies against sustainability targets and criteria (through assessing the economic, environmental, and social impacts of various policy proposals). Methods for conducting the assessment include:

• Cost Benefit Analysis - A technique companies use to determine if an idea or product is worth the money that is needed to be invested (cost) to make the product or idea come to life (benefit). The analysis usually only considers the cost for the company, not the cost on the environment or factory workers, however, an ethical company would include these in their cost-benefit analysis.

• Life Cycle Analysis - aims to quantify all environmental impacts of a product over its entire life cycle. From raw material extraction, to manufacturing, to distribution and use, to disposal with all stages identifying materials, waste and energy used. Improves the information base for decision-making by assessing the impacts of what it identifies. The basic steps in a life cycle analysis are goal definition, inventory, impact assessment, and improvement.

• Qualitative Risk Analysis - the probability of the risk occurring and the potential impact on a project or individual if that risk occurred, measured against a sale (e.g. low, medium, or high). Creating a table of risk likelihood (probability) against the severity of consequences (degree of hazard) produces a risk assessment matrix, to prioritise risks.

Hazard - a thing (e.g. a substance or situation) that can cause harm or create adverse impacts on people, the environment, and/or property.

Risk - the probability that a hazard will cause harm or create adverse impacts.

Risk Assessment - carried out when a new product or project is being considered to provide details of the potential adverse effects (e.g. on the environment or on human health).

Risk Management - To develop a management strategy that is determined by the amount of risk the community is willing to accept (in comparison to its benefits). Risk management can involve providing strategies and actions that stop or minimise a harmful/dangerous event (e.g. prohibiting or modifying activities, response procedures, monitoring).

An Environmental Management System (EMS) is the set of processes and practices that enable an organisation to reduce its environmental impacts (and increase its operating efficiency). The EMS process involves continual monitoring, review and assessment. To evaluate an EMS's success, an organisation needs to compare historical data with current data to measure changes (good or bad). (Although EMS is not always economically feasible for small-medium organisations).

The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has developed a standard for environmental management systems (ISO 14001) and applies across different organisational structures and regions. Outlines key elements like having a defined environment policy, commitment to continual improvement, and monitoring compliance.

Advantages of Environment Systems:

In addition to the environmental benefits.

• Industry Efficiency - Operational efficiencies from reducing raw material input, energy, usage, and waste help reduce company costs. Efficient operations results in an employee productivity increase. Gives companies a competitive edge as markets are increasingly concerned about their environmental credentials.

• Stakeholder Engagement - (People, groups, or organisations who have an interest in or could be affected by organisations' actions or policies). Most effective environmental projects will incorporate consultation with relevant stakeholders before the project starts (and is maintained throughout).

• Community Confidence - Greater community confidence that the environment will be protected. (ISO 14001 has a requirement for companies to respond to relevant interested parties including community consultation).

• Advantages for Regulators - The workload for environmental regulators is lighter as companies take greater responsibility for their own performance. Less adversarial, and thus more cooperative relationships between companies and regulators and better targeting of regulatory resources.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):

Undertaken for large developmental projects to determine the environmental effects of a proposed action prior to a planning approval being given. EIA's often also include economic and social analyses of the proposal.

They give decision-makers a method of determining what decision to make and must take into account the potential effect on the environment which involves determining the environmental impacts, the extent to which the impacts may occur, and the safeguards that could be applied.

Environmental Impact Statement:

In Victoria, the environmental impact statement is known as an Environmental Effects Statement (EES). It involves 2 periods of public comment, assessment of any considerations by the Minister for Planning, reviewed by an independent government-appointed authority, a panel makes recommendations (to proceed and if so under what conditions) to the government minister who has the final decision. Most EIA procedures can be seen as a compromise between the desire for development and a desire to minimise the environmental impacts.

An EIA is required to be undertaken prior to commencing any large development and once completed it is documented in an EES. They describe the need for and objectives of the proposal, proposed action and alternatives, predicts environmental (and economic and social) impacts significance, recommends safeguards/mitigation measures, monitoring protocols and makes overall recommendations to the relevant minister.

Diverse stakeholder values, knowledge and priorities, regulatory frameworks that inform environmental management strategies, use and interpretation of historical and current scientific data, and application of new technologies influence responsible decision making.