COMM 2050

The recipe for becoming a fearless public speaker involves a mix of passion for your message and a large sprinkling of authenticity. Fearlessness is not about a lack of fear, but about transforming fear into excitement and energy around your message.

CONFIDENT PUBLIC SPEAKING INGREDIENTS:

1. Positive Mental Imagery

   • Psychologists found that confident speakers mentally see themselves this way.

   • To unpick your mental imagery:

     1. Picture yourself speaking. Note what senses are stimulated and whether you feel confident or nervous. Identify what makes it that way.

     2. Play with the mental image: Change colors, adjust how you see the audience (sitting/standing, close/far) until you feel powerful.

     3. Address "scary" people in the audience (snipers, unreceptive members) by picturing them with a clown nose to feel more confident.

     4. Try imagining both laughter and silence to see which reaction "feels" confident.

     5. Consider your body's sensation (heavy/light) and the floor beneath your feet (soft/hard). A firm grounding usually makes you feel more confident.

     6. Practice these shifts every time you think about your speech to rewire nervous habits.

2. Visualizing Public Speaking Success

   • Create a positive affirmative space by literally seeing yourself presenting with confidence.

   • Methods:

     • Close your eyes and imagine breathing in confidence (as a color) and exhaling fear (as a different color).

     • Imagine yourself walking confidently into a room, noticing surroundings and enjoying the audience.

     • As you speak, imagine being in the audience's mind, marveling at how well-informed and entertaining you are. Go through the entire speech this way.

     • As you conclude, return to your own self and revel in your powerful and confident public speaking. See your smiling audience thanking you.

     • Remember this feeling and carry it with you from your visualization, locating it in your "gut" or heart.

3. Demon Slaying

   • Address the inner critic or 'inner demon' (negative inner dialogue).

   • Strategies:

     • Give it space to 'burn itself out'; sometimes you know it's not true just by listening.

     • Show it reasons for confidence by focusing on past successes in communication, even outside public speaking.

     • Make friends with the demon, understanding it wants you to be safe. With love and patience, it may calm down.

     • If it persists, banish it by imagining pushing it off a cliff, throwing it in the trash, or sending it away.

4. A Juicy Stage Persona

   • Adopting a stage persona can help you stretch into fearless parts of your character; it's a fuller version of yourself unleashed.

   • To develop a fearless stage persona, ask yourself:

     • What are your best qualities as a speaker (e.g., cool, compassionate, gruff, powerful peacemaker, wizard of change)?

     • What might your 'trademark' features be (e.g., hand movements, energy level)? Utilize these internal traits.

     • What name could you give your stage persona? (e.g., "Energizer Bunny," "Ginger").

Memorable speakers hone their certainty and confidence through practice and preparation. Confident public speaking means believing in your message and converting fear into energy to convey it.

Introduction to Communication Apprehension (CA)

• Real-life scenarios illustrating CA: syllabus-driven 10-minute oral presentation; second interview panel questions; meeting fiancé’s family and facing potential political judgment; nervousness linked to public speaking.

• Quotations to set tone:

  • ~ Beyonce Knowles: “I get nervous when I don't get nervous. If I'm nervous, I know I'm going to have a good show.”

  • ~ Chanakya: “As soon as the fear approaches near, attack and destroy it.”

  • ~ Nelson Mandela: courage as triumph over fear.

  • ~ Jack Youngblood, Oprah Winfrey, Edgar Allan Poe, Haile Gebrselassie: themes of visualization, practice, and staying conversant rather than memorized.

• Core focus: dealing with one of the most common fears in society: the fear of public speaking, termed communication apprehension (CA).

• Prevalence: CA is a real, well-documented obstacle affecting academic and professional success.

• Impacts of CA (range across life):

  • Self-esteem concerns (Adler, 1980).

  • How you are perceived by others (Dwyer & Cruz, 1998).

  • Academic performance and GPA; job interview outcomes (Daly & Leth, 1976).

  • Higher CA linked to avoidance of communicative interaction in personal, social, and classroom settings; can lead to miscommunication.

• Chapter aim: provide information and practical strategies to cope with CA, rather than a universal elimination of it.

• Key takeaway: CA is not simply about saying the wrong thing; it’s about building confidence to say it well.

Chapter Objectives

• Understand the nature of communicative apprehension (CA) and identify your personal “brand” of CA.

• Objectively analyze the formation of your habitual frame of reference.

• Apply cognitive restructuring (CR) techniques to cultivate a more positive frame of reference.

• Recognize the importance of customized practice to become conversant on your topic.

• Create a personal preparation routine to minimize apprehension.

Chapter Outline (structure you’ll study)

• Introduction

• Classifying CA (trait-anxiety, state-anxiety, scrutiny fear)

• Frames of Reference (habitual vs personal)

• Cognitive Restructuring (CR): sources of apprehension, impact, learning confidence

• Techniques for Building Confidence:

  • Prepare Well

  • Visualize Success

  • Avoid Gimmicks

  • Breathe and Release

  • Minimize What You Memorize

  • Practice Out Loud

  • Customize Your Practice

• Conclusion

• Chapter Activities and Exercises

• Glossary

• References

• Licensing note: Creative Commons attribution

Classifying Communication Apprehension (CA)

• CA is not a single cause; it appears in multiple forms and varies by individual’s experiences.

• Distinctions among key concepts:

  • Stage fright vs CA: CA is essentially stage fright with an accompanying emotional trauma component.

  • Debates on whether CA is inherent or learned; likely a combination of factors.

• Types of CA:

  • Trait-anxiety

  • Described by McCroskey et al. (1976) as a personality-linked tendency to avoid public expression.

  • Shy individuals may avoid interaction due to fear of judgment; pattern of behavior forms over time.

  • State-anxiety

  • Described by Beatty (1988) as anxiety derived from external situations; risk of embarrassment tied to scrutiny and evaluation.

  • Early experiences (forgotting lines, poor performance) or vicarious observation of others’ struggles can generate state-anxiety.

  • Scrutiny fear

  • Described by Mattick et al. (1989): fear of being watched or observed even when interaction with others isn’t required.

• Practical implication: Understanding “primary cause” helps tailor strategies; CA is a resultant condition with varying intensities depending on triggers.

• Important caveat: Techniques are aimed at CA in ordinary public speaking contexts; not a substitute for treatment of major personality disorders.

Frames of Reference

• Frames of reference shape how you anticipate and approach public speaking experiences.

• Habitual frame of reference

  • Example: dependency on prior experiences with film/book series (e.g., Harry Potter/Lord of the Rings) where anticipation is rewarded; fans frequently attend despite critics’ opinions.

  • Definition: context, viewpoint, presuppositions, or evaluative criteria that consistently influence perception and thinking; constrains outcomes.

  • Consequence: public speaking becomes a habitual experience (often high-stakes) due to education context and grading.

  • Result: pressure from grades can turn presenting into a high-stakes event akin to a final exam.

• Personal frame of reference

  • Example: social lunch with friends vs a graded presentation.

  • Observation: presenting in a non-graded context tends to reduce CA due to positive framing and supportive social environment.

  • Key question: Is there a correlation between positive mood and positive outcomes?

• Inspirational idea: Courage is not the absence of fear, but the triumph over fear. (Mandela)

Cognitive Restructuring (CR)

• CR is an internal process to alter how you perceive an action or experience (Mattick et al., 1989).

• CR is a three-step process:
  1) Identify objectively what you think.
  2) Identify inconsistencies between perception and reality.
  3) Replace destructive thinking with supportive thinking.

• Practical application: Shine a light on your habitual frame of reference; CR targets the internal dialogue that fuels CA.

• Sources of apprehension (common concerns):

  • Being center of attention; feeling like under a collective microscope with everyone watching.

  • Fear of being judged harshly or making an embarrassing mistake; concern that disapproval will be swift and public.

• Impact of apprehension (before vs after CR):

  • Before CR: “everyone is staring at me”; “I will be judged harshly”; fear of embarrassment.

  • After CR: “audience is looking for success and will be supportive”; audience empathy and willingness to listen.

  • Transformation: from threat-based to collaborative, audience-focused framing.

• Learning confidence: address uncertainties by asking whether speaker fears align with audience expectations; audiences generally want the speaker to succeed.

• CR is effective but challenging; changing habits requires time and deliberate practice; often needs longer-term commitment (example: more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech).

• Supporting idea: changing attitude is important, but so is skill development; preparation remains crucial.

• Quotations embedded:

  • ~ Mark Twain: “it usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech.”

  • ~ Nelson Mandela (also cited earlier): courage framing; ~Twain supports extended prep.

Impact and Practice: Visualizing, Eye Contact, and Realities of the Audience

• Eye contact and audience dynamics:

  • In U.S. culture, eye contact signals listening and engagement; audiences look at the speaker to show they are listening.

  • Fear of being the center of attention often ties to perceived scrutiny and audience reactions.

• CR vs perception:

  • Before CR: fear of being judged harshly; audience’s perspective is seen as punitive.

  • After CR: audience can be seen as empathetic and cooperative; successful communication is more likely when you assume positive audience intent.

• Learning confidence through realistic appraisal: consider your own experiences as an audience member to recalibrate your expectations when you are the speaker.

Techniques for Building Confidence

• Prepare well

  • Strong correlation: more preparation reduces nervousness; better practice yields better readiness.

  • Analogy: Michael Jordan’s free-throw practice; simulate game-like stress to make in-game performance more automatic.

  • Distinction: there is a difference between knowing what you are talking about and knowing what you are going to say.

  • Practice focus: preparation should recreate real-life performance conditions; not just academic writing tasks.

• Visualize success

  • Athletes, performers, and speakers benefit from imagining successful performance.

  • Quotes and guidance: visualize yourself speaking with confidence, with relaxed facial expressions, confident vocal tone, and responsive audience.

  • Realistic imagery helps align actions with desired outcomes; avoid unhelpful gimmicks like imagining audiences in pajamas.

  • Practical cue: see audience positively engaging; imagine applause or thoughtful nods.

  • Quote: ~ Oprah Winfrey: emphasize visualization and rejection of gimmicks.

• Avoid gimmicks

  • Mirror practice can distract from actual speaking performance; focus should be on expressiveness, material familiarity, and audience interaction, not on appearance.

  • Mirror practice draws attention to self rather than to audience; build audience-focused practice.

  • Avoid the “pink bunny ears” type tips; concentrate on authentic engagement with the audience.

• Breathe and release

  • Breathe-and-release is a shortened form of systematic desensitization, a longer therapeutic technique for phobias.

  • Three-step method:
    1) Imagine the nervous energy inside your body as bubbling energy.
    2) Draw energy to a high point with a deep cleansing breath.
    3) Release energy by relaxing the entire upper body from fingertips to shoulder blades; do not attempt to hold still to “fight” tremors.

  • Practicality: can be used while walking to the front of the room; helps address physical manifestations of nervousness (trembling hands, knees).

  • Quotation: ~ Robert Louis Stevenson: “I’ve a grand memory for forgetting.”

• Minimize what you memorize

  • Avoid scripting the entire speech; being conversant is preferable to rigid memorization.

  • Distinction between introduction/closing (where connection with the audience matters) and body (where responsiveness to audience matters most).

  • Memorize strategically: open and close with strong, well-prepared moments; the body should be flexible to audience feedback.

  • Why: memorizing word-for-word can hinder reading audience cues and adjusting in real time.

  • Supporting idea: you should memorize enough to start smoothly and end sharply, but stay conversant rather than scripted.

  • Quotes: ~ Edgar Allan Poe; ~ Haile Gebrselassie: emphasize conversant preparation over scripted memorization.

• Practice out loud

  • Out-loud rehearsal is essential for gauging flow, pacing, and length.

  • Without a complete out-loud run, you risk delivering your first full dress rehearsal at the moment it counts most.

  • Initial practice should be done with no notes to assess true conversance and spot gaps.

  • Three guiding questions for your initial out-loud practice:

  • Where are you most and least conversational during the presentation?

  • Where do you most need supportive notes?

  • What should your notes contain to support you most effectively?

  • Final aim: practice to become conversant in your topic, not fluent with a fixed script.

• Customize your practice

  • Recognize your unique CA profile (your personal brand) and tailor preparation accordingly.

  • Reflect on what causes your CA: center-of-attention issues, audience judgment, or fear of freezing or forgetting.

  • Create a prioritized plan: identify issues, decide how to minimize their impact, adjust your preparation approach (written vs oral emphasis, scripted vs conversational).

  • Be deliberate and flexible; changing habits takes time.

Conclusion

• CA is a real issue with multiple potential causes (inherent traits, situational factors, or being observed).

• Effective management relies on self-reflection, CR, and relaxation strategies like “Breathe and Release.”

• The most effective preparation emphasizes becoming conversant on your topic and engaging with the audience, rather than reciting a memorized script.

• Practice out loud, without a distracting mirror, to ensure you can respond to audience cues and maintain authentic communication.

• Core message: CA can be mitigated with awareness, deliberate practice, and a positive attitude; with effort, you can minimize its impact and succeed.

• Quotations to reinforce mindset:

  • ~ Plato: “Nothing in the affairs of men is worthy of great anxiety.”

  • ~ Theodore Roosevelt: “Believe you can and you're halfway there.”

Review Questions (summary prompts for self-test)

• What percentage of the general population is likely dealing with CA? $20\%$ or more per McCroskey (1976).

• What issues can CA create or exacerbate? Avoidance of interaction; miscommunication; lower academic performance and job opportunities.

• How do researchers classify CA? Trait-anxiety, state-anxiety, and scrutiny fear; differences and overlaps explained.

• What are your sources of CA? Consider whether they align with trait-anxiety or state-anxiety; reflect on personal experiences.

• How does Cognitive Restructuring work? Identify thoughts, find inconsistencies with reality, replace with constructive thinking; varies by person.

• What does it mean to become conversant in your topic? Conversant means being able to discuss intelligently and respond to audience feedback without relying on a full scripted text.

• Why is memorizing a presentation risky? It can hinder responsiveness to audience and shift attention to word-for-word recall rather than meaningful communication; some parts (opening/closing) may be memorized strategically.

Activities and Exercises (practical applications)

1) Relaxation technique practice (Williams College):

• a) Tighten toes; hold for 10; relax.

• b) Flex feet; hold for 10; relax.

• c) Move up through legs, abdomen, back, neck, face; contract and relax.
  d) Breathe deeply and slowly.

• After your speech, evaluate effectiveness and rationale.
  2) Collaboration to generate a list of relaxation techniques; select top three that fit you and test them before a speech.
  3) Make a barriers-to-preparation list; identify at least one method to overcome each obstacle; discuss with peers for ideas.

Glossary (selected entries)

• “Breathe and Release”: a short-cut version of systematic desensitization for public speaking preparation.

• Cognitive Restructuring (CR): internal process to adjust how one perceives an action or experience.

• Communication Apprehension (CA): the anxiety related to public speaking.

• Conversant: being able to discuss an issue intelligently with others.

• Frame of Reference: the context and evaluative criteria within which perception and thinking occur.

• Scrutiny Fear: anxiety from being watched or observed, not necessarily requiring interaction.

• State-Anxiety: anxiety derived from the external situation.

• Systematic De-sensitization: multi-stage therapeutic regimen for phobias; gradual exposure and coping.

• Trait-Anxiety: anxiety linked to personality traits.

References (selected from the chapter)

• Adler, R. B. (1980). Integrating reticence management into the basic communication curriculum. Communication Education, 29, 215-221.

• Beatty, M.J. (1988). Public speaking apprehension, decision-making errors… Communication Education, 37, 297-311.

• Daly, J. A. & Leth, S. A. (1976). Public speaking apprehension and personnel decisions. International Communication Association proceedings.

• Dwyer, K. & Cruz, A. (1998). Communication Apprehension, Personality, and Grades in the Basic Course. Communication Research Reports, 15(4), 436-444.

• Mattick, R. P., Peters, L., & Clarke, J. C. (1989). Exposure and cognitive restructuring for social phobia: A controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 3-23.

• McCroskey, J. C. (1976, 1977, 1984). Various works on CA; include relationships to academic achievement and classroom dynamics.

• Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43, 17-26.

• Pelias, M. H. (1989). CA in public speaking textbooks. Communication Education, 38(1), 41-53.

Notes on licensing and visuals

• Chapter uses Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.

• Figures and photo credits for various pages are provided (e.g., Rebiya Kadeer, Tuvaluan speaker, Michael Jordan, etc.).

Final takeaway

• CA is a common, manageable condition.

• Use CR to reframe thinking; use relaxation to physically manage nerves; practice to become conversant rather than memorized.

• The most effective preparation emphasizes understanding and engaging your audience rather than delivering a perfect scripted performance.

Learning Objectives

• Explore digital public speaking as an emerging medium.

• Define synchronous and asynchronous communication

• Strategize best practices for online speaking

Traditional Public Speaking and the Online Shift

Traditionally, public speaking has been understood as a face-to-face exchange between a designated speaker and an audience. Like we discussed in Chapter 1, this understanding of public speaking has a $2500$-year history. In fact, when you imagine a public speaker, you likely picture a person standing on a stage with a podium and speaking in front of a live audience. However, new media and digital technologies have begun expanding both our access to public speakers and our platforms to speak and reach new audiences. YouTube — a global video sharing service — has more than $1.8 \times 10^9$ monthly users. These are people who log in and view content ranging from instructional videos to political commentary. You may also access videos on Instagram Live or Facebook. With access to these platforms, speakers can broadcast insights and advocacies to a global audience.

Businesses, too, have begun using online public speaking. Webinars, video conferences, and digital speakers have permeated professional industries, making best practices for online speaking increasingly important. Like any public speaking approach, online public speaking offers a variety of opportunities and constraints.

ONLINE PUBLIC SPEAKING: DEFINITION AND CORE CONCEPTS

Online public speaking — also known as digital oratory — is a thesis-driven, vocal, embodied public address that is housed within (online) new media platforms (Lind, 2012, p. 164). Like all public speeches, an online speech should be well-prepared, organized, well-reasoned, and well-rehearsed. As you think through an online speech, purpose, synchronicity, and the audience all play key roles.

Purpose

Online speaking opportunities are not created equally, and each speech will have different goals — informing, persuading, or entertaining. Remember that digital oratory requires a thesis statement, so ask: what’s my purpose? what’s my thesis? Then organize your content around the answer. Examples include:

• participating in or leading a webinar (tools such as Blackboard Collaborate, Citrix, GoToMeeting, Adobe Connect, and many others)

• recording an instructional video detailing how to navigate a new piece of technology

• sending a digital response that reviews a policy change or advocacy
  Each speech will have different expectations on what should be included. Use material from earlier chapters to craft content.

Synchronicity and Asynchronicity

Traditional public speaking occurs face-to-face (speaking synchronously, in real time). In online public speaking, some speeches are synchronous (live), while others are asynchronous (recorded for later viewing).

• Synchronicity: In synchronous online speaking, many of the same face-to-face principles apply. If you present live to a nonprofit through Skype and members watch in real time, the speech is synchronous. Live presentations are ephemeral — they happen once, so your content should be crafted for clear understanding.

• Asynchronous: In asynchronous online speaking, the speech may be recorded and watched at a later time. YouTube hosts many asynchronous videos, and audiences can re-watch or pause as needed. This approach provides additional time to record and revise.
  Each option offers different opportunities and constraints.

The Audience

New media has expanded the audience pool for public speaking. In traditional public speaking, the audience is often limited to those who attend the event (explicit or discrete). In online speaking, audiences can be discrete or dispersed. A discrete audience is defined and identifiable (e.g., a nonprofit’s Skype participants). A dispersed audience is spread across locations and may be harder to define (e.g., a YouTube video). With a dispersed audience, it’s challenging to tailor references or calls to action because geographic locations may limit what individuals can do.
With dispersed audiences, there’s also a higher risk that audience members won’t view the speech. Digital information overload is a real concern, so the first lines — the attention getter — become crucial for hooking viewers. Spend extra time crafting and rehearsing the attention-getter.

Being in the Audience

Audience members engage with online public speeches synchronously or asynchronously. Your conduct as an audience member matters; avoid negative comments or trolling. How you contribute to the dialogue online is constitutive, so ethical world-making through your participation should be maintained.

Rehearsing to Speak Online

Rehearsing to speak online can feel odd when video software is involved. You’ll be more effective if you’re aware of the speaking context, including purpose, synchronicity, and audience. Rehearse under the conditions that you’ll speak. Pro-Tip: Rehearse under the conditions that you’ll speak.
Generally, integrate aesthetic strategies (as discussed in Part 3 of this book) — including verbal, nonverbal delivery, and presentation aids — and be mindful of additional variables unique to digital delivery, which we’ll track below.

Verbal Delivery

Verbal delivery is key in a digital speech, especially when your vocals overlay a slideset and your body isn’t visible. Focus on:

• enunciation, punctuation, rate, and pauses; energy is essential for maintaining audience engagement.

• Record yourself during rehearsal on a smartphone or similar device, then critique whether your voice sounds lively or flat. Some experts suggest standing to approximate the real speaking experience.

• Practice repeatedly; preparation means both verbal and physical rehearsal.

• Sound and projection matter in digital contexts. Rehearse with the technology you’ll use (including microphones). If you have a microphone, adjust your projection. If you don’t, be aware of how the recording device captures your voice and ambient noise. Extraneous noise damages credibility.

• Example: during a mayoral race, candidates used Instagram Live outdoors; wind caused noisy feedback and made audio hard to hear because there was no good microphone.

Nonverbal Delivery

When rehearsing your nonverbal delivery, ask: what’s visible in the video? If your body is visible, rehearse with nonverbal delivery principles in mind and be mindful of the camera’s location(s). Eye contact remains important; treat the camera as your audience substitute if there is no live audience. Rehearse your eye contact and facial expressions and record yourself to see how they translate on video. Consider your background as part of the nonverbal aesthetics—ensure it’s not distracting or messy. If the background is white, avoid wearing white to prevent you from blending into the backdrop. The goal is an aesthetic experience that honors the purpose of your speech, with nonverbal factors bolstering your ethos.

Additional Preparation Tips

1. Ensure you will not be interrupted during the web conference.

2. Have notes and any needed materials within reach. If you display them on a computer, be mindful of the audience’s ability to see you reading.

3. If you can be seen, use the technology to your advantage so you are not a completely disembodied voice talking over slides.

Presentation Aids

Sometimes an online speech includes presentation aids. Determine whether a presentation aid is necessary and whether you can provide it in another form.

• It can be tempting to use a presentation aid to avoid being visible; if you’re only using a visual aid to avoid showing your embodied presence, that’s a poor reason — embodied presentation tends to be more engaging for audiences.

• If a presentation aid is absolutely necessary or required, follow guidelines from Chapter 10. Decide whether to provide it live or in the recording. If addressing a discrete audience, consider sending data (graphs, numbers) ahead of time so the audience can review beforehand.

Section Summary

Public speaking in online formats involves multiple variations: informative asynchronous speeches with a discrete audience and persuasive synchronous speeches with a dispersed audience. Knowing these variations helps you prepare to speak digitally with confidence and clarity.

Rehearsing to Speak Online

Rehearsal for online delivery can feel unusual, but context matters (purpose, synchronicity, audience). Rehearsal under the actual speaking conditions is recommended, and you should integrate aesthetic strategies for verbal and nonverbal delivery and any presentation aids. Additional digital-specific variables will be tracked below.

Speaking for an Online Class

• Film your whole body — not just a head-and-shoulders shot.

• Do tech walk-throughs to ensure your camera and microphone work, and confirm you can deliver the recording to your instructor (often not via email because large files require cloud upload).

• Dress appropriately; online settings can tempt informality, so aim for wardrobe choices that translate well on camera.

• Ensure lighting is appropriate; light should come from in front of you, not behind you; avoid excessive glare or shadows.

• Be mindful of color and lighting in your setting; ensure your appearance reads well on camera.

Conclusion

Digital public speaking is evolving. The tips and tactics discussed help you avoid major problems and achieve effective presentations in online formats.

LICENSE

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Speak Out, Call In: Public Speaking as Advocacy by Meggie Mapes is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.