Introduction to Flying – FAA History, Regulations & Pilot Certification

Overview of Chapter and FAA Documentation

• Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK) = core text for student & advanced pilots.
• Chapter 1 scope: brief flight history, FAA origin/role, regulatory framework (CFR Title 14), reference publications, pilot-certificate eligibility, training routes, roles of CFI & DPE, transition from PTS to ACS.
• Key FAA study / reference sources
  • Advisory Circulars (ACs) – explain or standardise regs; numbering pattern: \text{Subject Part – Sequence – Revision Letter} (e.g., 61\text{-}65E).
  • AIM, numerous handbooks, flight publications (Sectional, TAC, IFR, Chart Supplement U.S., etc.).
  • Online repositories: www.faa.gov, www.faasafety.gov (FAASTeam & SPANS), PilotWeb for NOTAMs.

Milestones in the History of Flight

• Prehistory ⇒ mythic “bird-men” failed due to human bio-mechanics mismatch.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1500s)
  • Ornithopter sketches (Figure 1-1) – still bird-wing concept.
• Robert Hooke (1655) – argued artificial propulsion required.
• Balloon Era
  • 1783 Montgolfier hot-air balloon (23-min flight).
  • 10 days later: Jacques Charles gas balloon.
  • Issue: lift solved, but control/speed absent.
• Kite influence (Chinese kites \approx 2000 yrs old).
• Sir George Cayley (1773–1857)
  • “Father of Aerial Navigation”; discovered lift/drag/thrust/weight interplay; 1852 man-carrying glider (Figure 1-2).
• 19th-century experimenters: William S. Henson (steam monoplane), Otto Lilienthal (hang-gliders, data collection).
• Wright Brothers
  • 17\,\text{Dec}\,1903 Kitty Hawk – four flights, total 98\,\text{s} (Figure 1-3).
  • Emphasised wind-tunnel data & 3-axis control.

Birth & Evolution of U.S. Civil-Aviation Governance

• Early 1900s = “free-for-all”; first commercial attempt:
  • St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line (Benoist airboat, Figure 1-4)
  – Auction: A.C. Pheil paid \$400, became first paying passenger (01 Jan 1914).
  – Fare \$5 pp / \$5 per 100 lb cargo; 1{,}205 passengers in 4 months; proved viability.
• WW I ⇒ mass-produced fighters/bombers; stimulated airmail idea.
• 15\,\text{May}\,1918: first U.S. airmail (NY–DC); Aug 1918 Post Office took over.
• Transcontinental Mail Route (1921): 2{,}612 NM, 13 stops (Figures 1-5/1-6).
• Air Commerce Act (20\,\text{May}\,1926): Secretary of Commerce tasked with fostering air commerce – pilot & aircraft certification, airways, navigation aids.
  • Aeronautics Branch built 51\,\text{ft} beacon towers + 70\,\text{ft} concrete arrows.
  • 06\,\text{Apr}\,1927 first U.S. civilian pilot license → William P. MacCracken Jr.
  • 29\,\text{Mar}\,1927: Buhl Airster CA-3 first type certificate.
• 1934: Aeronautics Branch → Bureau of Air Commerce; initiated first 3 ATC centers (1936).
• Civil Aeronautics Act 1938 ⇒ Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA); Roosevelt split into CAA (operations) & CAB (economics/safety board).
  • 1946 Federal Aid Airport Program.
• Federal Aviation Act 1958 ⇒ independent Federal Aviation Agency (FAA); first Administrator Gen. E.R. “Pete” Quesada (1959-61). Gained joint civil-mil ATC control.
• DOT creation 01\,\text{Apr}\,1967; FAA renamed; NTSB took accident investigation.
• 1960s hijacking wave ⇒ FAA security duties; moved to DHS after 11\,\text{Sep}\,2001.
• 1970s: airport aid expansion, kite/balloon (>500\,\text{ft} AGL) regs, noise standards.
• 1970s ATC automation (radar+computers); Airline Deregulation Act 24\,\text{Oct}\,1978 (Figure 1-11) removed CAB economic control; PATCO strike Aug 1981 (≈11{,}000 controllers fired).

FAA Regulatory Architecture & Locations

• CFR Title 14 “Aeronautics and Space” – Subchapters A–N (Figure 1-12).
  • Parts pilots cite most: 61 (certification), 91 (operating rules VFR/IFR), 43 (maintenance).
• HQ Washington DC; 9 regional offices.
  • MMAC, Oklahoma City – training/logistics.
  • WJHTC, Atlantic City – R&D, ATC systems.

Flight Standards Service / Field Structure

• FSDO (~80 offices, Figure 1-13) – direct interface with public.
  • Aviation Safety Inspectors (~3{,}700) – certification, enforcement, accident investigation.
• FAASTeam – shift from broad Aviation Safety Program to data-driven, regional accident-reduction initiatives. Online courses + SPANS notifications.

FAA Reference & Flight Information System

• AIM (Figure 1-14) – official NAS procedures, medical tips, glossary.
• Key handbooks (Figure 1-15):
  • Aviation Instructor’s, Aircraft Flying (by category), Instrument Flying, Instrument Procedures, etc.
• FAA-approved POH/AFMs (manufacturer-specific, Figure 1-16).
• NOTAM System
  • Categories: NOTAM (D), FDC NOTAM, Pointer, Military.
  • (D) keywords: RWY, TWY, RAMP, APRON, AD, OBST, NAV, COM, SVC, AIRSPACE, \text{(U)}, \text{(O)}.
  • Composition format: ! Accountability-ID Affected-ID KEYWORD Surface Condition Time.
  • Times are YYYYMMDDhhmm in UTC; altitudes in feet MSL ≤17{,}999 → numeric (e.g., 275); \geFL180 expressed FL.
• Flight publications: Sectional/TAC/WAC, En-route High/Low, DPs, STARs, SIAPs, Chart Supplement U.S., NOTAM Publication (NTAP).

Aircraft Categories, Classes, Types & Weight Groups (14 CFR 1.1)

• Categories by design/operation
  • Airplane, Glider, Lighter-than-Air (Airship, Balloon), Rotorcraft (Gyroplane, Helicopter), Powered-Lift, Powered Parachute, Weight-Shift-Control, Rocket.
• Weight-based
  • Large >12{,}500\,\text{lb} MTOW; Small \le12{,}500\,\text{lb}; Light-Sport Aircraft (LSA) – performance-constrained since certification.
• Definitions for certification system
  • Category (airmen vs aircraft), Class, Type; examples:
  – Airman Category: Airplane / Rotorcraft.
  – Aircraft Category: Transport / Utility / Normal.

Pilot Certification Pathway

Sport Pilot

• Minimum flight hours (dual + solo):
  • Airplane 20; Powered Parachute 12; Trike 20; Glider 10; Gyroplane 20; Airship 20 / Balloon 7.
• Eligibility: \ge16 yrs (14 glider/balloon), \ge17 to test (16 g/b), English proficient, driver’s license (medical substitute).
• Privileges: PIC of LSA, day-VFR, share pro-rata expenses.
• Limitations: No Class A, B/C/D until endorsed; no international flights sans foreign approval; no hire/carriage for hire, no towing.
• Certificate issued blank (no category/class); CFI logs endorsements for each LSA model.

Recreational Pilot

• Requirements: 30 hrs flight (≥15 dual, 3 solo, 2 en-route dual, 3 prep), third-class medical.
• Privileges: PIC in \le4-seat, single engine; share pro-rata costs.
• Limitations: Max 1 passenger, 50 NM radius (unless further endorsement), no night, no ATC-controlled airspace ops without training.

Private Pilot (most common)

• Minimum: Part 61 ⇒ 40 hrs (average 60–75); Part 141 ⇒ 35 hrs.
• Privileges: Non-commercial PIC, flight in furtherance of own business, share pro-rata costs.
• Limit: No compensation/hire.

Commercial Pilot

• Advanced systems + airmanship; complex or turbine aircraft experience.
• Privileges: May be paid; if no instrument rating → limited to day, \le50 NM for hire.
• Complex aircraft = retractable gear, movable flaps, controllable-pitch prop (Figure 1-23).

Airline Transport Pilot (ATP)

• Full privileges to act as PIC/SIC in scheduled ops.
• Requirements: 1{,}500 hrs total, age \ge23 (restricted ATP at 21), English, good moral character.
• Typical aircraft: transport-category jets (Figure 1-24).

Flight Training Infrastructure

• Part 142 Training Centers – airlines & turbine programs; heavy use of simulators.
• Part 141 Schools – FAA-approved TCO; structured; min hours reduced (e.g., 35 hr PPL).
• Part 61 Schools / Independent CFIs – flexible, custom pacing; must meet experience mins but no fixed syllabus.
• Due-diligence checklist for prospects: aircraft availability/maintenance, instructor schedules, classroom & briefing rooms, safety culture, FAA records.

Role & Qualities of the CFI

• Must teach aeronautical knowledge, skill, ADM, CRM, scenario-based training.
• Duties: Orient student, develop planners/evaluators, diagnose difficulties, maintain records, ensure standards.
• Should model perfect safety habits: collision avoidance scan, checklist usage, runway-incursion vigilance, positive control transfers.

Student Pilot Certification & Medical Process

• New (post 01\,\text{Apr}\,2016) plastic Student Pilot Certificate – no expiry; obtained via IACRA through CFI, DPE, ACR, or FAA office.
• Eligibility: \ge16 yrs (14 g/b), English.
• Medicals via MedXPress; Classes: 1st (ATP), 2nd (Commercial), 3rd (Student/Recreational/Private). LSA = driver’s license.

Solo Flight Endorsements & Limits

• CFI logs specific make/model solo endorsement + any Class B/C/D airspace authority.
• Student may not carry passengers, fly for hire, or exceed endorsement boundaries.

Knowledge & Practical Testing

• Knowledge Tests: objective, computer-based; FAA Test Guides outline topics.
• Practical Test Standards (PTS) transitioning to Airman Certification Standards (ACS) ⇒ integrates knowledge, skill, risk management.
• Test documentation: FAA Form 8710, Knowledge Test Report, Medical/Student cert, logbook endorsements, aircraft documents (registration, airworthiness, W&B, AD list).
• Examiners: FAA ASI or Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) – private individuals under 14 CFR 183 (
  • Must hold relevant ratings, maintain currency, medical, CFI if required.
  • Charge reasonable fee; must mirror FAA standardisation.

Summary & Ethical / Practical Implications

• Safe flight = integration of historical lessons, regulatory compliance, continuous education.
• Ethical duty: Instructors & examiners must foster safety culture; pilots must employ ADM & CRM to mitigate risks.
• Practical outcomes: mastery of regulations (CFR Title 14), awareness of NOTAMs, diligent use of FAA resources, and commitment to lifelong learning via FAASTeam & SPANS.
• Future trend: ACS framework, enhanced ATC/NextGen tech, continued emphasis on scenario-based, risk-managed flight training.