Introduction to Cognition and Models of Cognition

Introduction to Cognition

  • Overview of the field of cognition and perception.

  • Course code: PSYC 236.

What is Cognition?

  • Definition: Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using information.

  • Key components:
      - Perception
      - Attention
      - Memory
      - Language
      - Reasoning
      - Learning

What is a “Model of Cognition”?

  • Two primary categories:
      1. Methodological Models (How We Study Cognition):
        - Cognitive Psychology: Uses behavior to infer cognitive processes.
        - Cognitive Neuropsychology: Studies patients with brain damage to infer cognitive functions.
        - Cognitive Neuroscience: Examines brain activity through various imaging techniques to deduce cognitive processes.
        - Computational Cognitive Science: Employs formal models to test cognitive theories.
      2. Theoretical Models (How Cognition Works):
        - Information-Processing Models: Conceptualizes the mind as a computer, processing symbols step-by-step.
        - Neural Network/Connectionist Models: Suggest cognition arises from the interactions of simple units, specifically neurons.
        - Predictive Coding/Bayesian Models: Views cognition as probabilistic inference, minimizing prediction errors.

Mirror Neurons (MNs) as a Case for Studying Cognition

  • Function of Mirror Neurons:
      - Facilitate the inference of intentions through action observation.
      - Activated during both action execution and observation.
      - First identified in area F5 of the macaque premotor cortex (Di Pellegrino et al., 1992).
      - Reference for mirror neurons: Ramsey, R., Kaplan, D. M., & Cross, E. S. (2021). Watch and learn: the cognitive neuroscience of learning from others’ actions. Trends in Neuroscience, 44(6), 478-491.

Cognitive Psychology

  • Behavior: Utilized to make inferences about mental processes.

  • Methods Used:
      - Reaction times measurement
      - Accuracy assessments
      - Imitation tasks

  • Case Study on Mirror Neurons:
      - Investigates the role of action observation and mimicry in understanding behavior and cognition.

Study Tasks and Experiments

  • Study on Emotion Perception:
      - Stimuli: Presentation of happy and neutral faces.
      - Task: Participants categorized faces as happy, neutral, or mixed by pressing specific keys (m, n, b).
      - Mimicry Manipulation:
        - Participants used different straw-holding techniques under blocked and facilitated conditions; in free mimicry, no straw was used.
      - Valence/Arousal Measurement: Participants rated stimuli after each mimicry condition to assess emotional perception through facial mimicry.

Motor Learning

  • Motor Sequence Learning: Enhances speed, accuracy, and precision of movement through practice.

  • Observational Learning:
      - Definition: Learning motor skills via observation of others.
      - Examples:
        - Tool usage
        - Knot-tying
        - Dance
        - Timing tasks
        - Serial Reaction Time (SRT) tasks

  • Serial Reaction Task (SRT):
      - Participants respond to visual stimuli appearing in various screen locations through button presses.
      - Stimuli Presentation:
        - Either in a repeating sequence or randomized.
      - Learning Indicator: Responses become faster in sequential trials; performance declines when the sequence is interrupted.
      - Reference: Ramsey, R., Kaplan, D. M., & Cross, E. S. (2021).

Experimental Findings

  • Example of Task:
      - Task Type: Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task.
      - Participants: Observed others performing a motor sequence.
      - Finding: Participants learned the motor sequence without physical practice and displayed activation in the mirror neuron system.
      - Conclusion: Supports the premise that observational learning ties into the mirror neuron system and broader cognitive networks.

Brain Regions Involved in Motor Learning

  • Core Mirror Neuron System: Activated during observational learning.

  • Additional Brain Areas:
      - M1 (Primary Motor Cortex)
      - S1 (Primary Somatosensory Cortex)
      - PMd (Dorsal Premotor Cortex)
      - PMv/IFG/BA44 (Ventral Premotor Cortex, Inferior Frontal Gyrus)
      - IPL (Inferior Parietal Lobule)
      - SPL (Superior Parietal Lobule)
      - DLPFC (Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex)
      - Cerebellum (involved in coordination and timing)
      - Reward system and basal ganglia
      - V5/MT+ (Middle Temporal Visual Area)

  • Emergence of Evidence: Recent studies highlight contributions from a variety of areas connected to executive functions and reward processing in motor learning.

Cognitive Neuropsychology

  • Purpose: Evaluates cognitive performance in individuals with neurological conditions.

  • Key Assumptions:
      - Functional modularity implies the brain has independent processing units.
      - Anatomical modularity suggests distinct regions correspond to specific modules.
      - Universality means cognitive functions are similarly organized across individuals.
      - Subtractivity indicates brain damage disrupts modules or their connections, without enabling new module formation.

  • Mirror Neuron Context: Study of difficulties in mimicry and action recognition associated with brain function.

Specific Brain Regions and Associated Impairments

  • Left Inferior Frontal Cortex: Interferes with understanding observed actions.

  • Inferior Parietal Cortex: Impacts perceptual judgment regarding observed actions.

  • Superior Temporal Cortex: Plays a role in implicating actions to observed stimuli.

Study on Apraxia and Gesture Recognition

  • Research Overview:
      - Limb apraxia (LA) is a syndrome with deficits in executing gestures.
      - Study examined 33 left-brain-damaged patients and 8 right-brain-damaged patients.
      - Conducted a gesture recognition task with correct or incorrect transitive and intransitive gestures.
      - Findings:
        - LA was prevalent in 21 left-brained patients linked to frontal and parietal lesions.
        - Patients with LA had more impaired recognition of gesture execution compared to non-apraxic patients.
      - Conclusion: Recognition deficits in gestures correlate with damage to the inferior frontal gyrus involved in planning and executing actions.

Neuropsychological Insights

  • In Conditions Affecting Emotion Recognition:
      - Moebius syndrome noted for facial expression processing issues.
      - Parkinson’s patients exhibit impaired recognition of facial/body emotions.
      - Schizophrenia shows reduced emotion recognition ability, which could improve through facial training.
      - Key Finding: Mimicry fosters sensorimotor simulation relevant to empathy and emotion recognition.

Techniques in Cognitive Neuroscience Measurement

  • Single-unit Recordings:
      - Record neuronal firing in macaque monkeys during action execution and observation.

  • Electroencephalography (EEG):
      - Non-invasive; measures electrical activity in the brain with high temporal resolution.
      - Mu Rhythm:
        - Brain waves (8–13 Hz) appear over sensorimotor cortex at rest.
        - Active system during execution, observation, or imagery of actions.

  • Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):
      - Non-invasive imaging method providing high spatial resolution to measure BOLD signals indicating neural activity.
      - Poor temporal resolution affecting its use for understanding dynamic processes.

  • Magnetoencephalography (MEG):
      - Non-invasive measurement detecting magnetic fields generated by neural currents, offering excellent temporal and decent spatial resolution.

  • Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS):
      - Modulates brain activity using magnetic pulses; used to explore causal brain-behavior relationships.
      - Temporary effects allow assessment of transient brain functions.

Predictive Coding in Mirror Neuron System

  • Basic Principle:
      - Cognitive processes involve hierarchical interpretation of actions.
      - Top-down predictions for expected actions and bottom-up input signals inform on action mismatches.
      - Errors signal discrepancies, allowing feedback loops for refining action understanding.
      - Enables inferences on others’ intentions based on past encounters.

Open Questions in Mirror Neuron Research

  • Areas to explore:
      - Identification of brain areas involved in the mirror neuron system.
      - Determining the functional roles of these brain regions.
      - Understanding the necessity of mirror neurons for empathy and theory of mind.
      - Investigating the correlation of affective states to our emotional processing in the brain.

Conclusion

  • Recap of major themes and findings within the domain of cognition and perception as discussed through models, mirror neuron systems, and neuropsychological insights.

  • Emphasis on ongoing research and open questions that continue to shape understanding in cognitive science.