1P92 2.1 Republic Systems1

Roman Republic Overview

• Timeline: 510 – 27 BCE

• Term "Republic" Origin: From Latin res (business/affair) + publica (public/common) = res publica, denoting a commonwealth overseen by the people of Rome.

• Key Elements of Government:

  • Senate

  • Magistrates

  • People

• Slogan: SPQR = Senatus, Populusque Romanus, indicating the Senate and the people of Rome collaborate in governance.

• Modern Reference: Current municipal authority symbolized by a manhole in Rome.

Senate of Republican Rome

• Function: Advisory body comprised of aristocratic men.

• Evolution: Originated from chiefs of gentes in the Regal period to an assembly of previous magistrates.

• Legislative Role: Provided advice referred to as Senatum Consultum, which required ratification by the people.

• Authorities: Controlled public treasury and foreign policy.

• Membership: Expanded to approximately 300 members, providing experience and stability.

• 19th Century Representation: Artistic interpretations of the Senate in action.

Populus Romanus

• Definition: Refers to male citizens of Rome.

• Division of Assemblies: Organized into three assemblies based on tribes which sometimes diluted voting power due to size variations.

  • Comitia Centuriata: The principal assembly, organized for military duty, responsible for voting on war, electing consuls and praetors, and conferring Imperium (power to lead armies).

  • Other Assemblies: Voted on lower magistrates and civic legislation, with straightforward yes/no votes.

• Magistrates: Addressed the Populus in legislative matters.

Republican Magistrates: Consuls

• Definition: Two men elected annually as the highest magistrates.

• Power Dynamics: They held equal authority and decisions required mutual agreement.

• Concept of Liberty: Shared power and annual turnover viewed as Liberitas (freedom) for Roman elites.

• Roles: Presided over the Senate, served as military generals, addressed citizens in the Forum Romanum (Roman Forum).

More Magistrates

• Praetors: Six magistrates who acted as judges and could command an army with Imperium if needed; later operated provinces.

• Aediles: Four junior magistrates responsible for public works including infrastructure like roads and markets.

• Quaestors: Twenty magistrates assisting in military roles, overseeing taxation, treasury, and record keeping.

Forum Romanum

• Significance: Political heart of Rome, hosting major civic activities.

• Curia: Senate House where the Senate and Consuls convened.

• Rostra: The speaker's platform for magistrates to address the populace.

• Modern View: The Roman Forum today is a testament to its historical importance.

Curia or Senate House of Rome

• Interior Features: Low benches were available for seating.

• Historical Importance: A reconstruction from the Late Empire showcases its enduring significance.

Career Path for Elites

• Cursus Honorum: The "Path of Honor" aimed at magistrates wishing to rise to consul.

• Nobilitas: Symbolized as a form of fame and recognition associated with prominent families (gentes).

• Consular Families: About 20 families had a continuous presence in election cycles.

• Late Republic Tensions: Increased competition amplified conflicts as political rivalries escalated.

Consular Symbols: Toga Praetexta

• Description: The toga worn by consuls, characterized by a Tyrian purple stripe.

• Significance of Color: White toga represented purity, while the purple stripe indicated status; Tyrian Purple was an expensive dye traded by Phoenicians.

Consular Symbols: Curule Chair

• Identification: Sella curulis, a chair used in the Senate and military campaigns.

• Status Indicator: Symbol of authority for magistrates holding Imperium.

• Cultural Adoption: Derived from Etruscan influences, depicted on Roman coins.

Magisterial Attendants: Lictores

• Role: Consuls were preceded by 12 Lictores; their number varied with magistrate rank (e.g., Praetors = 6, Aediles = 2).

• Function: Acted as attendants and bodyguards, clearing paths and summoning crowds.

Fasces

• Symbol of Authority: Held by Lictores, consisting of a bundle of rods with an axe inside.

• Enforcement Power: Symbolized authority for corporal punishment, a concept still evocative in modern language regarding fascism (term reused by Mussolini).

Elite Ideals & Values: Mos Maiorum

• Definition: Translates to “Customs of Ancestors,” reflecting social and religious practices primarily held by Patricians, evolving into broader adoption among wealthy Romans.

• Core Values:

  • Virtus: Courage and valor.

  • Pietas: Duty and devotion, encompassing loyalty to family, gods, and state.

Other Magistrates: Dictator

• Usage Definition: Appointed solely during emergencies or military crises; usually limited to one ex-Consul with maximal power for a duration of six months or until the crisis is resolved.

• Historical Example: 458 BCE - Cincinnatus was named dictator while Rome faced conflict with the Aequi.