Timeline: 510 – 27 BCE
Term "Republic" Origin: From Latin res (business/affair) + publica (public/common) = res publica, denoting a commonwealth overseen by the people of Rome.
Key Elements of Government:
Senate
Magistrates
People
Slogan: SPQR = Senatus, Populusque Romanus, indicating the Senate and the people of Rome collaborate in governance.
Modern Reference: Current municipal authority symbolized by a manhole in Rome.
Function: Advisory body comprised of aristocratic men.
Evolution: Originated from chiefs of gentes in the Regal period to an assembly of previous magistrates.
Legislative Role: Provided advice referred to as Senatum Consultum, which required ratification by the people.
Authorities: Controlled public treasury and foreign policy.
Membership: Expanded to approximately 300 members, providing experience and stability.
19th Century Representation: Artistic interpretations of the Senate in action.
Definition: Refers to male citizens of Rome.
Division of Assemblies: Organized into three assemblies based on tribes which sometimes diluted voting power due to size variations.
Comitia Centuriata: The principal assembly, organized for military duty, responsible for voting on war, electing consuls and praetors, and conferring Imperium (power to lead armies).
Other Assemblies: Voted on lower magistrates and civic legislation, with straightforward yes/no votes.
Magistrates: Addressed the Populus in legislative matters.
Definition: Two men elected annually as the highest magistrates.
Power Dynamics: They held equal authority and decisions required mutual agreement.
Concept of Liberty: Shared power and annual turnover viewed as Liberitas (freedom) for Roman elites.
Roles: Presided over the Senate, served as military generals, addressed citizens in the Forum Romanum (Roman Forum).
Praetors: Six magistrates who acted as judges and could command an army with Imperium if needed; later operated provinces.
Aediles: Four junior magistrates responsible for public works including infrastructure like roads and markets.
Quaestors: Twenty magistrates assisting in military roles, overseeing taxation, treasury, and record keeping.
Significance: Political heart of Rome, hosting major civic activities.
Curia: Senate House where the Senate and Consuls convened.
Rostra: The speaker's platform for magistrates to address the populace.
Modern View: The Roman Forum today is a testament to its historical importance.
Interior Features: Low benches were available for seating.
Historical Importance: A reconstruction from the Late Empire showcases its enduring significance.
Cursus Honorum: The "Path of Honor" aimed at magistrates wishing to rise to consul.
Nobilitas: Symbolized as a form of fame and recognition associated with prominent families (gentes).
Consular Families: About 20 families had a continuous presence in election cycles.
Late Republic Tensions: Increased competition amplified conflicts as political rivalries escalated.
Description: The toga worn by consuls, characterized by a Tyrian purple stripe.
Significance of Color: White toga represented purity, while the purple stripe indicated status; Tyrian Purple was an expensive dye traded by Phoenicians.
Identification: Sella curulis, a chair used in the Senate and military campaigns.
Status Indicator: Symbol of authority for magistrates holding Imperium.
Cultural Adoption: Derived from Etruscan influences, depicted on Roman coins.
Role: Consuls were preceded by 12 Lictores; their number varied with magistrate rank (e.g., Praetors = 6, Aediles = 2).
Function: Acted as attendants and bodyguards, clearing paths and summoning crowds.
Symbol of Authority: Held by Lictores, consisting of a bundle of rods with an axe inside.
Enforcement Power: Symbolized authority for corporal punishment, a concept still evocative in modern language regarding fascism (term reused by Mussolini).
Definition: Translates to “Customs of Ancestors,” reflecting social and religious practices primarily held by Patricians, evolving into broader adoption among wealthy Romans.
Core Values:
Virtus: Courage and valor.
Pietas: Duty and devotion, encompassing loyalty to family, gods, and state.
Usage Definition: Appointed solely during emergencies or military crises; usually limited to one ex-Consul with maximal power for a duration of six months or until the crisis is resolved.
Historical Example: 458 BCE - Cincinnatus was named dictator while Rome faced conflict with the Aequi.