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The making of America, 1789—1900 (OCR)
The Making of America, 1789-1900
1. The Early Republic and Federalist Era (1789-1800)
Setting the Stage:
End of the Revolutionary War (1783): Treaty of Paris officially ends the war, recognizing American independence.
Articles of Confederation (1781-1789): First attempt at a unified government; proved weak due to a lack of central authority, inability to tax, and interstate conflicts.
Constitutional Convention (1787): Delegates meet in Philadelphia to address weaknesses of Articles; draft the U.S. Constitution, establishing a federal system with separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial).
Ratification Debates (1787-1788): Federalists (supporters of the Constitution) vs. Anti-Federalists (fearful of strong central government); Federalist Papers written to advocate for ratification. Constitution ratified in 1788.
Key Features of the Federalist Era:
Establishment of the Federal Government (1789): George Washington elected as first President; John Adams as Vice President.
Bill of Rights (1791): First ten amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing individual liberties and states' rights, addressing Anti-Federalist concerns.
Hamilton's Financial Plan:
Assumption of State Debts: Federal government takes on states' Revolutionary War debts to establish national credit.
National Bank: Creation of the Bank of the United States to manage national finances, sparking controversy over constitutionality (strict vs. loose interpretation).
Excise Tax and Tariffs: Taxes on domestic goods (whiskey) and imports to raise revenue; Whiskey Rebellion (1794) tests federal authority.
Emergence of Political Parties:
Federalist Party: Led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams; advocated for strong central government, national bank, loose interpretation of Constitution, commercial economy, and ties with Britain.
Democratic-Republican Party: Led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison; advocated for states' rights, agrarian economy, strict interpretation of Constitution, and ties with France.
Foreign Policy Challenges:
French Revolution (1789) and Napoleonic Wars: U.S. neutrality policy proclaimed by Washington; Genet Affair (French diplomat stirs up pro-French sentiment).
Jay Treaty (1794): Treaty with Britain to resolve outstanding issues, unpopular with Democratic-Republicans who favored France.
XYZ Affair (1797-1798) and Quasi-War with France (1798-1800): Diplomatic incident and undeclared naval war with France; Alien and Sedition Acts passed by Federalists to suppress dissent.
Election of 1800: Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) defeats John Adams (Federalist) in a close and contentious election, marking the "Revolution of 1800" and the peaceful transfer of power between parties.
2. Jeffersonian Era and Expansion (1801-1829)
Jeffersonian Democracy:
"Revolution of 1800": Shift in political power to Democratic-Republicans; emphasis on states' rights, agrarianism, and limited government.
Louisiana Purchase (1803): Acquisition of vast territory from France; doubles the size of the U.S., promotes westward expansion, raises constitutional questions about treaty power.
Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806): Exploration of Louisiana Purchase territory, charting geography, making contact with Native American tribes.
Marbury v. Madison (1803): Supreme Court case establishes judicial review – power of the Court to declare laws unconstitutional.
Embargo Act of 1807: Jefferson's response to British and French impressment of American sailors; economic disaster, hurts American trade more than European powers.
War of 1812:
Causes: British impressment of sailors, interference with American trade, British support for Native American resistance on the frontier, "War Hawks" in Congress pushing for war.
Key Events: British attacks on Washington D.C. (burning of White House), Battle of New Orleans (American victory after treaty signed), naval battles on Great Lakes.
Treaty of Ghent (1814): Ends the war in stalemate; no territorial changes, but resolves some pre-war issues.
Impacts: Boost to American nationalism and manufacturing, decline of Federalist Party, rise of Andrew Jackson as a war hero, end of British-Native American alliance in the Old Northwest.
"Era of Good Feelings" (1815-1825):
Post-War Nationalism: Sense of national unity and purpose, decline of partisan conflict (temporarily).
Monroe Doctrine (1823): U.S. foreign policy statement declaring Western Hemisphere closed to further European colonization and intervention.
Economic Development: Expansion of agriculture (cotton boom in the South), early industrialization in the North, infrastructure development (roads, canals – "internal improvements").
Missouri Compromise (1820): Addresses issue of slavery in western territories; Missouri admitted as slave state, Maine as free state, slavery prohibited north of 36°30′ latitude in Louisiana Purchase territory (except Missouri).
Jacksonian Democracy (1829-1837):
Rise of Andrew Jackson: "Common Man" President; populist appeal, military hero, represents westward expansion and democratic spirit.
Expansion of Suffrage: Voting rights expanded to most white men (removal of property qualifications).
Spoils System: Practice of rewarding political supporters with government jobs.
Nullification Crisis (1832-1833): South Carolina attempts to nullify federal tariffs; Jackson asserts federal supremacy, crisis averted by compromise tariff.
Bank War: Jackson's opposition to the Bank of the United States; vetoes recharter, withdraws federal funds, leads to the bank's demise.
Indian Removal Act (1830): Forced removal of Native American tribes from southeastern U.S. to west of Mississippi River; Trail of Tears (Cherokee removal).
Formation of Whig Party: Opposition party to Jacksonian Democrats, led by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster; favored strong federal government, national bank, internal improvements.
3. Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion (1830s-1850s)
Manifest Destiny Ideology: Belief that American expansion across North America was divinely ordained and inevitable; fueled by nationalism, economic opportunity, and racial/cultural superiority beliefs.
Texas Annexation (1845): Texas declares independence from Mexico (1836), becomes independent republic, annexed by U.S. in 1845; sparks tensions with Mexico.
Mexican-American War (1846-1848): War with Mexico over Texas border and California/New Mexico territories; U.S. victory, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) cedes vast territory to U.S. (Mexican Cession).
California Gold Rush (1849): Discovery of gold in California; massive migration westward, rapid population growth, statehood for California (1850).
Oregon Trail and Overland Trails: Trails westward used by settlers; hardships, dangers, impact on Native American populations.
Compromise of 1850: Attempt to resolve slavery issue in newly acquired territories; California admitted as free state, stricter Fugitive Slave Act, popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico territories.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): Allows popular sovereignty to decide slavery issue in Kansas and Nebraska territories, repealing Missouri Compromise; "Bleeding Kansas" – violence between pro- and anti-slavery settlers.
4. Sectionalism and the Road to Civil War (1850s-1861)
Growing Sectionalism: Increasing division between North and South over slavery, economic differences, states' rights vs. federal authority, cultural values.
Abolitionist Movement: Growing moral opposition to slavery in the North; figures like Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison; Underground Railroad.
Pro-Slavery Arguments: Defense of slavery in the South as a positive good, based on racial superiority, biblical justifications, economic necessity.
Political Crises:
Dred Scott Decision (1857): Supreme Court ruling that slaves were not citizens and Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in territories; intensifies sectional tensions.
John Brown's Raid (1859): Abolitionist John Brown's attempt to incite slave rebellion at Harpers Ferry; seen as terrorist in South, martyr in North.
Election of 1860: Abraham Lincoln (Republican – anti-slavery expansion) elected president; South Carolina secedes from the Union, followed by other Southern states.
Formation of the Confederacy (1861): Confederate States of America formed by seceding states; Jefferson Davis as president.
Fort Sumter (April 1861): Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina; beginning of the Civil War.
5. The Civil War (1861-1865)
Key Advantages and Strategies:
Union (North): Larger population, industrial capacity, railroads, navy; Anaconda Plan (blockade South, control Mississippi River).
Confederacy (South): Defensive war on home territory, military leadership (Robert E. Lee), "King Cotton" diplomacy (hoped for European support).
Major Battles:
Early Battles (1861-1862): Bull Run (Manassas), Antietam (Sharpsburg).
Turning Points (1863): Gettysburg (Union victory in East), Vicksburg (Union control of Mississippi River in West).
Sherman's March to the Sea (1864): Union campaign of total war in Georgia.
Appomattox Courthouse (April 1865): Confederate surrender to Union, end of the war.
Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Lincoln declares slaves in Confederate territory free; changes war aims to include abolition of slavery, boosts Union morale, allows African Americans to enlist in Union Army.
African Americans in the War: Served in Union Army and Navy (e.g., 54th Massachusetts Regiment); fought for their own freedom and Union cause.
War's Impact: Hundreds of thousands of casualties, devastation of the South, end of slavery (13th Amendment), strengthening of federal government, transformation of American society.
6. Reconstruction (1865-1877)
Presidential Reconstruction (1865-1867):
Lincoln's 10% Plan: Lenient plan for readmitting Confederate states; 10% of voters in 1860 election needed to take loyalty oath.
Andrew Johnson's Policies: Similar to Lincoln's plan, but more lenient towards South; pardons for Confederates, states required to ratify 13th Amendment.
Black Codes: Southern states enact laws restricting rights of newly freed African Americans.
Radical Reconstruction (1867-1877):
Congressional Reconstruction: Radical Republicans in Congress take control of Reconstruction; want to protect Black rights and punish South.
Reconstruction Acts (1867): Divide South into military districts, require states to draft new constitutions guaranteeing Black suffrage and ratify 14th Amendment.
14th Amendment (1868): Guarantees citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S.
15th Amendment (1870): Prohibits denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Rise of the KKK: Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups use violence and intimidation to suppress Black voting and enforce white supremacy.
Reconstruction Governments: Republican-led governments in Southern states with Black participation; achievements in public education, infrastructure, but faced opposition and corruption.
End of Reconstruction (1877):
Compromise of 1877: Disputed election of 1876; deal made to elect Republican Rutherford B. Hayes president in exchange for withdrawal of federal troops from South; ends Reconstruction.
Failure of Reconstruction: Despite some initial progress, Reconstruction ultimately fails to achieve full racial equality; South returns to white supremacy, Jim Crow laws enacted, voting rights restricted for African Americans.
7. The Gilded Age (1870s-1900)
Industrialization and Economic Growth:
Second Industrial Revolution: Rapid industrial expansion; technological innovations (steel, electricity, oil), factory system, mass production.
Rise of Big Business: Growth of large corporations and monopolies (e.g., Standard Oil, Carnegie Steel); figures like Rockefeller, Carnegie, Vanderbilt – "Captains of Industry" or "Robber Barons"?
Railroad Expansion: Railroad network expands dramatically; connects country, facilitates trade, transportation, economic growth.
Urbanization: Rapid growth of cities due to industrialization and immigration; urban problems – overcrowding, poverty, pollution, crime.
Immigration: Large waves of immigration from Europe (especially Southern and Eastern Europe); "New Immigrants" face nativism and discrimination.
Politics in the Gilded Age:
Political Corruption: Era of political machines, graft, scandals (e.g., Tweed Ring, Credit Mobilier).
Laissez-Faire Economics: Government policy of limited intervention in the economy; social Darwinism – justification for wealth inequality.
Labor Movement: Rise of labor unions (Knights of Labor, American Federation of Labor); strikes and labor unrest (e.g., Haymarket Riot, Pullman Strike); struggle for workers' rights.
Populist Movement: Farmers' movement in the West and South; grievances against railroads, banks, monopolies; Populist Party platform – government regulation, inflation, reforms.
Progressive Era Origins: Seeds of Progressive reform movements emerge in response to Gilded Age problems.
Social and Cultural Changes:
Wealth and Inequality: Vast wealth for industrialists and upper class, but widespread poverty and inequality for working class.
Changing Role of Women: Women's suffrage movement gains momentum; women entering workforce and higher education.
African Americans in the Gilded Age: Continued struggle for civil rights; Jim Crow segregation enforced in the South; rise of Booker T. Washington's accommodationist approach vs. W.E.B. Du Bois's demand for immediate equality.
Western Frontier and Native Americans: Continued westward expansion; conflicts with Native American tribes; Dawes Act (assimilation policy); end of the frontier era by 1890s.
8. American Imperialism (Late 19th Century)
Motivations for Imperialism:
Economic Factors: Need for new markets, raw materials, investment opportunities.
Political/Strategic Factors: Desire for naval bases, coaling stations, global power projection, competition with European powers.
Ideological Factors: Manifest Destiny extends overseas, "White Man's Burden" – belief in civilizing mission, Social Darwinism applied to nations.
Spanish-American War (1898): War with Spain over Cuban independence; U.S. victory, Treaty of Paris (1898) – U.S. acquires Cuba (temporarily), Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines.
Acquisition of Hawaii (1898): Annexation of Hawaii after American businessmen overthrow Hawaiian monarchy.
Philippine-American War (1899-1902): Filipino resistance to American rule; brutal war, U.S. eventually suppresses rebellion and establishes colonial rule.
Open Door Policy in China: U.S. policy to maintain equal access for all nations to trade with China.
Impacts of American Imperialism: U.S. becomes a major world power, debates over imperialism within U.S., anti-imperialist movement, long-term consequences for acquired territories.
Key Themes Throughout the Period:
Federalism and States' Rights: Ongoing tension between federal and state power; debates over interpretation of Constitution.
Democracy and Republicanism: Expansion of democratic participation (suffrage), but also limitations (slavery, women's suffrage); ideals of civic virtue and republican government.
Economic Development and Transformation: Shift from agrarian to industrial economy; growth of capitalism, rise of big business, economic inequality.
Westward Expansion and Frontier: Manifest Destiny, territorial expansion, impact on Native Americans, closing of the frontier.
Slavery and Race: Slavery as a central issue leading to Civil War; Reconstruction and its failures; legacy of racial inequality.
Industrialization and Urbanization: Growth of cities, industrial economy, labor movement, social problems of industrial society.
Immigration and Nativism: Waves of immigration, cultural diversity, but also anti-immigrant sentiment and discrimination.
American Identity and Nationalism: Evolution of American national identity; debates over who is "American"; rise of American power on the world stage.
