Unit 4 – Motivation and Emotion

Unit 4 – Motivation and Emotion

Motivation

Motivation Theories

  • Instinct Theory

    • Suggests that behavior is driven by innate instincts.

    • Instincts are complex behaviors that are rigidly patterned throughout a species and are unlearned.

  • Drive-Reduction Theory

    • Proposed by Clark Hull, this theory posits that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

    • Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain a balanced internal state. When one is hungry, a drive is created to seek food.

  • Arousal Theory

    • Suggests that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal; too little leads to boredom, while too much can lead to stress.

    • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Explains the relationship between arousal and performance, proposing that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point (optimal arousal), beyond which performance begins to deteriorate.

    • Formula: ext{Performance} = f( ext{Arousal})

  • Sensation Seeking Theory

    • Proposed by Marvin Zuckerman (1979), indicates that individuals who score high on sensation seeking are often chronically underaroused.

    • These individuals may engage in sensation-seeking behaviors (risk-taking) to increase their arousal to a preferred level.

  • Incentive Theory

    • Suggests that behavior is motivated not just by biological needs but also by incentives (external stimuli).

    • Individuals engage in behaviors that lead to desirable outcomes (rewards) and avoid those that lead to negative outcomes (punishments).

  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

    • Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal rewards—doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable.

    • Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards—doing something for a recognizable payoff such as money or grades.

  • Self Determination Theory

    • Focuses on the degree to which behaviors are self-motivated and self-determined.

    • Emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competency, and relatedness as key factors in fostering intrinsic motivation.

  • Motivational Conflicts Theory (Kurt Lewin)

    • Describes conflicts arising from competing motivations.

    • Approach-Approach Conflict: Involves choosing between two attractive alternatives.

    • Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Involves facing a single choice that has both positive and negative aspects.

    • Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: Involves choosing between two unattractive alternatives.

Hunger Motivation

  • Starvation: A condition resulting from a prolonged lack of food.

  • Set Point: A biologically predetermined weight that an individual's body tries to maintain.

  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The rate at which the body expends energy at rest to maintain vital functions, often used as an indicator of energy expenditure.

  • Hypothalamus: A brain region involved in the regulation of hunger and various aspects of metabolism.

  • Hunger Hormones:

    • Hormones such as ghrelin (increases hunger) and leptin (decreases hunger) affect appetite and energy balance.

  • Glucose: A simple sugar that is an essential source of energy; significant decreases in blood glucose levels can trigger feelings of hunger.

  • Situation Influences on Eating: Environmental cues, social context, or stress levels can impact eating behaviors and appetite.

  • Self-esteem: An individual’s overall subjective emotional evaluation of their worth; can significantly influence eating behaviors and motivation.

Emotion

Physiology of Emotion

  • The experience of emotion is often accompanied by physiological responses such as increased heart rate, sweating, and hormonal changes.

Autonomic Nervous System

  • The autonomic nervous system is divided into two branches:

    • Sympathetic Division: Activates the fight-or-flight response, preparing the body for action.

    • Parasympathetic Division: Promotes the rest-and-digest state, calming the body after excitement or stress.

Expressed Emotion

  • Nonverbal Expression: Emotions are conveyed through nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, and body language.

  • Culture & Emotional Expression: Different cultures may express emotions in varying ways, with distinct display rules that dictate appropriate emotional expressions in different contexts.

    • Display Rules: Culturally specific guidelines for how and when emotions should be expressed.

  • Facial Feedback Effect: The phenomenon where facial expressions can influence emotional experiences; smiling can lead to feeling happier.

Stress and Health

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

  • Refers to traumatic experiences in childhood (such as abuse or neglect) that have a lasting impact on health and behavior.

General Adaptation Syndrome

  • Describes the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress, which includes three phases:

    • Alarm Reaction: Initial response to stress, where the body prepares to face the threat.

    • Resistance: The body adapts to the stressor and remains on high alert.

    • Exhaustion: Prolonged stress leads to depleted resources and can result in health problems.

Effects of Oxytocin

  • Oxytocin, often dubbed the “bonding hormone,” facilitates social bonds and the “tend and befriend” response to stress—a protective mechanism seen typically in women.

Psychophysiological Illness

  • A condition where psychological factors contribute to physical illness, such as stress causing heart disease or ulcers.

Stress Hormones and Their Effects

  • Cortisol: A major stress hormone that is released during the body’s response to stress; has various effects on metabolism and immune functioning.

Type A/B Personality

  • Type A Personality: Characterized by high levels of competitiveness, urgency, and aggressiveness. Often associated with greater stress.

  • Type B Personality: More relaxed, less competitive, and less aggressive; typically experience lower stress levels.

Biological Effects of Stress

  • Stress affects various systems in the body, leading to a range of physiological changes, including elevated blood pressure, weakened immune response, and impacts on mental health.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

  • Proposed by Barbara Fredrickson, this theory suggests that positive emotions broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, creative thoughts and actions, which in turn build personal resources.