• Psychology (Definition)- The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

  • William Wundt- founder of modern psychology for establishing the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879 and pioneering the use of experimental methods to study mental processes.

    • Sigmund Freud - known for his pioneering work in psychoanalysis, which greatly influenced the field of psychology by emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

    • Psychoanalysis - An approach to psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud in which the main goal is to make the unconscious conscious—that is, helping the client become more aware of thoughts and feelings of which they were unaware at the start of therapy.

    • Behaviorism- A psychological perspective that emphasizes observable behavior over internal mental processes.

    • Humanism- A psychological perspective that emphasizes the notion that human nature is generally good and people are naturally motivated to grow toward their own potential.

    • Cognitive Psychology- A psychological perspective that emphasizes cognitive processes such as thinking, language, attention, memory, and intelligence.

    • Positive Psychology- A perspective in psychology that emphasizes people’s strengths and successes.

    • Multiculturalism- A psychological perspective that emphasizes the influences of culture on behavior and mental processes. (2) An approach in psychology that highlights the importance and value of multiple cultural groups within a society.

    • Sociocultural - psychology is the study of how social and cultural factors influence individual behavior, cognition, and development.

    • Evolutionary Psychology- A psychological perspective that emphasizes Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution as an influence on behavior.

    • Biopsychosocial theory- A uniquely comprehensive psychological perspective that emphasizes biological, psychological, and social factors as influences on behavior.

• Scientific Method- A way of asking and answering questions that follows a predetermined series of steps: posing a question, conducting a literature review, developing a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis by collecting data, and analyzing the data and drawing conclusions.

  • Hypothesis - A prediction, typically based on a theory, that can be tested.

    • theory - A proposed explanation for observed events.

  • Experimental Research - A type of research in which the goal is to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one and observing changes in the other.

    • Random Assignment - A procedure in experimental research by which the assignment of participants into either the experimental or control group happens entirely by chance.

    • Independent variable - A variable in experimental research that is manipulated by the researcher.

    • Dependent variable - A variable in experimental research that is expected to depend upon the independent variable.

    • Experimental group - The group of participants in experimental research who receive the treatment that is the focus of the study.

    • Control group - The group of participants in experimental research who do not receive the treatment that is the focus of the study.

  • Descriptive Research - A type of research in which the goal is simply to describe a characteristic of the population.

    • Naturalistic Observation - in psychology refers to the process of observing and recording behaviors in a real-life setting without any intervention or manipulation by the researcher

    • Correlational Research - A type of research in which the goal is to determine the relationship between two variables.

    • Positive - refers to a relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other variable,

    • negative correlation - refers to a relationship where an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other variable

    • zero correlation - refers to no relationship between the variables.

    • Correlation-Causation fallacy - A mistaken belief that when two variables correlate strongly with each other, one must cause the other.

• Neurons - The cells that facilitate communication within the nervous system.

  • i. Dendrites - The branches at the end of neurons that receive signals from other neurons.

    • Cell body/soma - The large central region of a neuron that performs the basic activities, including the production of energy, to keep the neuron functional.

    • Axon - The part of the neuron that carries information toward other neurons.

    • Myelin sheath - A protective sleeve of fatty material that surrounds the axon.

    • ii. Synapse - The gap between two connecting neurons.

    • iii. Action Potential – Flow order through the neuron - The release, or firing, of an electrical impulse that travels through the axon.

    • iv. Neurotransmitters - The chemical messengers that travel across synapses from one neuron to the next.

  • b. Nervous System -

    • i. Central nervous system - The brain and the spinal cord.

    • Peripheral nervous system - The neurons that connect the central nervous system to other parts of the body.

    • ii. Somatic nervous system - The part of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the parts of the body controlled voluntarily.

    • Autonomic nervous system - The part of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the parts of the body controlled involuntarily.

    • iii. Sympathetic nervous system - a part of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's fight-or-flight response to prepare for perceived threats or stressors.

    • Parasympathetic nervous system - The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body down when stressors decrease.

  • c. Plasticity - The ability of the brain to adapt its structure or function in response to damage or experience.

    • i. Brainstem - The part of the brain that connects to the spine and controls the functions most essential to staying alive.

    • ii. Cerebellum - The part of the brain near the bottom and the back, primarily involved in balance and the coordination of movement.

    • iii. Medulla - The part of the brainstem most specifically involved in heartbeat and breathing.

    • iv. Limbic System - The cluster of brain areas involved primarily in emotion, located near the center of the brain and surrounding the thalamus.

      • 1. Hypothalamus - The part of the limbic system involved in memory, especially spatial memory and long-term memory.

      • 2. Hippocampus - The part of the limbic system involved in memory, especially spatial memory and long-term memory.

      • 3. Amygdala - The part of the limbic system involved most directly in emotion, especially fear.

    • v. Thalamus - The brain’s main sensory processing center, located near the center of the brain.

    • vi. Cerebral Cortex - The outer layer of the cerebrum, where sensory information is processed.

    • 1. Left and Right Hemispheres - The left and right halves of the cerebrum.

    • 2. Occipital Lobe - The lower back part of the brain, involved in vision.

    • Parietal Lobe - The part of the brain near the top and back of the head, involved in touch and perception.

    • Temporal lobe - The lower middle part of the brain, involved in hearing and speech production.

    • Frontal lobe - The part of the cerebral cortex right behind the forehead, involved in complex thinking tasks, planning, purposeful actions, and other advanced functions.

    • 3. Motor cortex - The strip of brain matter near the back of the frontal lobe, involved in voluntary movement.

    • Somatosensory cortex - The strip of brain matter near the front of the parietal lobe, involved in receiving information from the senses.

• Sensation & Perception (Chapter 3)

  • a. Top-down processing - A way of processing information in which expectations or previous experiences influence what a person perceives.

  • Bottom-up Processing - A way of processing information in which what a person senses becomes a perception with no influence of expectations or previous experiences.

  • b. Sensation (Bottom-up processing) - The ability of the sensory organs to pick up energy in the environment around the body and transmit it to the brain.

    • i. Absolute Threshold - The minimum level of a stimulus necessary for a person to detect its presence at least half of the time.

    • ii. Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference) - The smallest change in a stimulus necessary for a person to detect it at least half of the time.

    • iii. Sensory Adaptation - The tendency of a person’s sensation of a stimulus to decrease when the stimulus remains constant.

  • c. Perception (Top-down processing) - The ability of the brain to interpret the raw sensations it has taken in.

    • i. Selective attention - When the brain pays more attention to one sensory channel than others.

    • ii. Perceptual constancies - The brain’s ability to maintain the same perception of an object even when conditions around it cause it to produce different sensations.

    • iii. Inattentional blindness - The failure to notice something in your visual field simply because your attention was focused elsewhere.

    • Retina - The rear part of the eyeball, which receives visual stimulation and sends it to the brain via the optic nerve.

    • Rods - Receptor cells in the retina that detect shades of gray and allow a person to see in low light.

    • Cones - Receptor cells in the retina that detect color when light is plentiful.

    • Trichromatic Theory - An explanation of color vision based on the idea that the cones are specialized to sense either red, green, or blue.

    • Opponent Process Theory - An explanation of color vision based on the idea that the cones are specialized to sense specific opposite pairs of colors (like red–green and blue–yellow).

    • Cochlea - The spiral fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that sends sound waves to the brain via the auditory nerve.

    • i. Smell / Olfaction - The sense of smell.

    • ii. Taste / Gustation - The sense of taste.

    • iii. Kinesthetic sense - The sense of the position and movement of the body parts.

    • iv. Vestibular - The sense of balance.

  • a. Conscious - A person’s awareness of his or her self and surroundings.

  • unconscious processing -Mental activity of which the person is unaware.

  • b. Mindfulness - Awareness of one’s moment-to-moment experiences fully, deliberately, and without distraction.

    • i. Circadian Rhythms - The 24-hour cycle on which the brain and body function.

    • REM sleep - The stage of sleep in which intense brain activity and vivid dreams are most likely to occur.

      • 1. Insomnia - A sleep disorder featuring consistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or achieving high-quality sleep.

      • Narcolepsy - A disorder of “sleep attacks” characterized by immediate and unexpected shifts from wakefulness to REM sleep.

      • Sleep apnea - A sleep disorder caused by interruptions of breathing that cause repeated waking.

    • i. Tolerance and Withdraw - Decreased effectiveness of a particular amount of a drug and Stressful and uncomfortable symptoms caused by discontinuing a drug that had become habitual.

    • ii. Physical vs. Psychological dependence - A bodily need for a particular drug in order to function normally and A mental need for a particular drug in order to function normally.

    • Stimulants - Drugs that speed up bodily functions.

    • Opiates - Pain-relieving drugs naturally derived from the poppy plant.

    • Depressants - Drugs that slow bodily functions.

    • Hallucinogens - Drugs that produce unrealistic sensations such as hallucinations.

  • a. Memory (definition) - The process of taking in information, saving it over time, and calling it to mind later.

  • Encoding- The entering of information into memory.

  • Storage - Retaining information in memory.

  • Retrieval - Pulling information out of memory.

    • i. Sensory Memory - The earliest part of the memory process, in which the senses take in and very briefly hold information.

      • 2. Echoic vs. Iconic Memory - The auditory sensory memory, or all the information the ears took in during the previous few seconds and The visual sensory memory, or all the information the eyes took in during the previous fraction of a second.

• Short-Term Memory - A limited amount of new information being held briefly until it is either discarded or encoded into long-term memory.

  • Working Memory - A type of memory in which processing, or work, is done on briefly held information.

    • Chunking - Grouping pieces of information together in a meaningful way to enhance memory.

    • Maintenance Rehearsal - Information repeated in exactly the same form as it was originally encoded.

    • Elaborative Rehearsal - Adding meaning or associations to information to enhance memory.

    • 1. Explicit memory - Memory of which one is consciously aware.

    • semantic memory - A type of explicit memory consisting of facts, figures, word meanings, and other general information.

    • episodic memory - A type of explicit memory consisting of personal firsthand experiences.

    • Implicit memory - Memory of which one is not consciously aware.

    • procedural memory - A type of implicit memory consisting of how to perform tasks that are done automatically.

    • Flashbulb memory - A distinctively clear and vivid memory of an emotionally charged and novel event.

    • e. Serial Position Effect - The tendency to remember the first and last items in a series better than the items in the middle.

    • Primary effect - The tendency to remember the first items in a series particularly well.

    • Recency effect - The tendency to remember the last items in a series particularly well.

    • spacing Effect (massed vs. distributed practice) - The tendency to have better long-term memory for information when attempts to study it are spaced apart rather than crammed together.

      • Amnesia - The inability to remember some or all information, either temporarily or permanently.

      • Misinformation effect - The tendency of false or misleading information presented after the fact to be mistakenly incorporated into memory.

• Classical Conditioning - A form of learning in which animals or people make a connection between two stimuli that have occurred together, such that one predicts the other.

• Pavlov - known for his discovery of classical conditioning, which demonstrated how behavior can be learned through associations between stimuli and responses.

• Unconditioned stimulus - A stimulus that causes a response automatically, without any need for learning.

• unconditioned response - The automatic response to a stimulus that occurs naturally, without any need for learning.

• Conditioned stimulus - A formerly neutral stimulus that now causes a response because of its link to an unconditioned stimulus.

• conditioned response - The response to a conditioned stimulus acquired through learning.

• Neutral Stimulus - A stimulus that causes no response at all.

• Operant Conditioning - A form of learning in which the consequences of a voluntary behavior affect the likelihood that the behavior will recur.

• B.F. Skinner - developed the theory of operant conditioning, which emphasizes the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior.

• Reinforcement - Any consequence of a behavior that makes that behavior more likely to recur.

• (positive vs. negative) - A type of reinforcement that involves getting something desirable. and A type of reinforcement that involves removing something undesirable.

• Punishment - Any consequence of a behavior that makes that behavior less likely to recur.

• positive vs. negative punishment - Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior, while negative punishment involves removing a desired stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Shaping - The process of gradually learning a complex behavior through the reinforcement of each small step that is a part of the complex behavior.

• Observational Learning - A type of learning that occurs as a result of observing others’ behavior and consequences rather than our own.

• Insight Learning -

• Learned Helplessness - The absence of any attempt to help oneself that results from previously learning that such attempts are useless.

  • Concepts : A mental representation of a category of similar things, actions, or people.

    • Prototypes : The most typical or best example within a concept.

    • Heuristics : An educated guess or rule-of-thumb method of problem solving.

    • Availability heuristic : An educated guess based on the information that most quickly and easily comes to mind.

    • Mental Set : The limits a person places on an approach to problem solving based on what has worked in the past.

    • Confirmation Bias : A tendency to prefer information that confirms what a person thought in the first place.

    • Framing : The particular way a question or problem is presented, which can influence how a person responds to it.

    • Functional Fixedness : Thinking about something in only the way it is most typically used rather than other possible uses.

    • Chomsky’s Nativist Theory - A theory of language development that says the ability to use language is inborn.

    • Behavioral Theory: Language learned through reinforcement and imitation.

    • Formalist Theory: Language acquired through innate, biological ability.

    • Social-Pragmatic Theory: Language learned through social interactions and context.

    • Spearman’s General Intelligence (g): Intelligence is a single, underlying factor.

    • Fluid vs. Crystalized Intelligence: Fluid intelligence refers to problem-solving ability, while crystalized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and experience.

    • Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Intelligence can manifest in multiple ways, such as musical or interpersonal intelligence.

    • Practical Intelligence: Ability to adapt and solve real-world problems.

    • Emotional Intelligence: Ability to recognize and manage emotions in oneself and others.

    • IQ scores: Measure of intelligence based on standardized tests.

    • Normal distribution: Bell-shaped curve of IQ scores in the population.

    • Intellectual Disability and Giftedness: Cutoffs for classification based on IQ scores.

    • Validity and reliability: Measures of how well a test measures what it’s supposed to, and how consistent the results are.

    • Stereotype Threat and Testing Bias: External factors that can affect test scores, such as societal stereotypes and cultural differences.

    • Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation - A desire to perform a behavior because the behavior itself is rewarding vs A desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external reward.

    • Drive-Reduction Theory - A theory of motivation stating that unmet biological drives cause unpleasant sensations that motivate the person to meet those needs.

    • Arousal Theory - A theory of motivation stating that the person is motivated to obtain and maintain an optimal level of arousal.

    • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - An explanation of motivation created by Abraham Maslow based on the idea that certain needs must be satisfied before others.

    • Emotional Regulation - The ability to manage the type, intensity, length, and expression of one’s own emotions.

    • Display Rules - Norms within a group about the acceptable verbal and nonverbal expression of emotion.

  • a. Nature - refers to the genetic and biological factors that influence an individual's traits and behavior

  • Nurture - refers to the environmental and social factors that shape an individual's development and personality.

    • Assimilation - (1) A classification process that makes sense of new information by sorting into already existing schemas. (2) An acculturation strategy in which the person adopts the new culture and rejects the old culture.

    • Accommodation - A classification process that makes sense of new information by revising or creating new schemas.

    • Sensorimotor - The first stage in Piaget’s theory of development, from birth to about age 2, when babies understand the world through sensory experience.

    • Preoperational - The second stage in Piaget’s theory of development, from about age 2 to about age 7, when children can use language and other symbols for real objects but still can’t complete many mental operations.

    • concrete operational - The third stage in Piaget’s theory of development, from about age 7 to about age 11, in which children acquire the ability to think logically about concrete things.

    • formal operational - The final stage in Piaget’s theory of development, beginning around age 11 and lasting through adulthood, in which the person becomes able to think logically about abstract things.

    • Authoritarian parenting style - An approach to parenting in which parents require children to obey unquestionable, strict rules.

    • Authoritative parenting style - An approach to parenting in which parents set rules, but also explain and negotiate those rules with their children.

    • Permissive parenting style and Neglectful - An approach to parenting in which parents place minimal demands and allow children to run their own lives.

  • Lawrence Kohlberg’s - psychologist who developed a theory of moral development, which describes how individuals develop their sense of right and wrong over time.

    • Pre-conventional : A moral decision-making strategy driven by the potential rewards and punishments of the decision.

  • Conventional : A moral decision-making strategy driven by the desire to follow society’s norms and laws.

  • post-conventional : A moral decision-making strategy driven by fundamental rights and ethical principles.

    • Trust vs. mistrust: The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development where infants learn to trust or mistrust the world based on their caregivers' reliability and consistency.

    • Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: The second stage where toddlers develop a sense of independence and self-control, or feel shame and doubt if their autonomy is not encouraged.

    • Initiative vs. guilt: The third stage where preschoolers learn to take initiative in activities, or feel guilty if their actions lead to negative outcomes.

    • Industry vs. inferiority: The fourth stage where children develop a sense of competence and self-esteem by mastering new skills, or feel inferior if they experience repeated failure.

    • Identity vs. role confusion: The fifth stage where adolescents explore their sense of self and identity, or experience confusion and a lack of direction.

    • Intimacy vs. isolation: The sixth stage where young adults form close relationships with others or experience loneliness and isolation.

    • Generativity vs. stagnation: The seventh stage where adults focus on creating a positive legacy and contributing to society, or experience feelings of stagnation and unproductivity.

    • Ego integrity vs. despair: The final stage where older adults reflect on their life experiences and feel a sense of satisfaction and integrity, or experience despair and regret over missed opportunities.

    • Culture - A group of similar people who share beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior.

      • Worldview - A comprehensive, culturally influenced way of approaching and understanding the world around you.

      • Dynamic sizing - The ability to simultaneously know the norm for a group and recognize that the norm might not apply to every member of that group.

  • Multiculturalism - (1) A psychological perspective that emphasizes the influences of culture on behavior and mental processes. (2) An approach in psychology that highlights the importance and value of multiple cultural groups within a society.

  • Acculturation : Managing a life that involves the coexistence of more than one culture.

    • Assimilation : (1) A classification process that makes sense of new information by sorting into already existing schemas. (2) An acculturation strategy in which the person adopts the new culture and rejects the old culture.

      • Separation : An acculturation strategy in which the person retains the old culture and rejects the new culture.

      • Marginalization : An acculturation strategy in which the person rejects both the new culture and the old culture.

      • Integration : An acculturation strategy in which the person adopts both the new culture and the old culture.

      • Acculturative stress - Stress associated with the process of managing old and new cultures.

  • Individualism - A worldview that emphasizes the well-being of the individual over the well-being of the group.

  • Collectivism - A worldview that emphasizes the well-being of the group over the well-being of the individual.

  • Cultural intelligence/Cultural competence - A person’s ability to live and interact effectively in a multicultural society.

  • Microaggressions - Everyday actions or comments that, often unintentionally, contain hostile or off-putting messages for members of certain cultures.

  • Sex (biological) - A person’s biological maleness or femaleness.

  • Gender (psychological and behavioral) - A person’s social, psychological, and behavioral expectations of maleness or femaleness.

  • Stress - An unpleasant physical or psychological reaction to circumstances perceived as challenging.

    • Fight or flight response - An automatic emotional and physical reaction to a perceived threat that prepares one to either attack it or run away from it.

    • Stressors - Any event or change in one’s life that causes stress.

    • Primary vs. Secondary Appraisal - The way you determine how stressful an event is to you VS The way you determine how capable you are of coping with an event.

    • Health Psychology - A basic research specialization in which psychologists focus on the relationship between mind and body.

    • General Adaptation Syndrome - A widely accepted understanding of the way the body responds to ongoing stress, consisting of the sequence of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

  • Psychophysiological Illnesses

  • Stress and Personality types (A, B, C, and D)

  • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

  • Coping

    • Problem-focused coping

    • Emotion-focused coping

    • Mindfulness (also in Chapter 4)

    • Hardiness

    • Optimism

    • Psychodynamic Theory of Personality (Freud) - An explanation of personality, based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious forces and early childhood experiences.

    • Unconscious - Mental activity of which the person is unaware.

    • Id - the animalistic part of the mind that generates our most basic, biologically based impulses, such as sex and aggression.

    • Ego - According to Freud, the part of the mind that serves as a realistic mediator between the id and superego.

    • Superego - According to Freud, the part of the mind that opposes the id by enforcing rules, restrictions, and morality.

    • Defense mechanisms - According to Freud, techniques used by the ego to manage conflict between the id and superego.

Repression - unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses are pushed out of conscious awareness and stored in the unconscious mind.

Denial - refusing to acknowledge or accept a painful or distressing reality.

Displacement - redirecting one's emotions or impulses from their original target to a less threatening one.

• Psychosexual Stages - Freud’s five biologically based developmental stages of childhood, during which personality characteristics are formed.

• oral stage - The first of Freud’s psychosexual stages, which takes place from birth to about 18 months and focuses on the psychological consequences of feeding behavior.

• anal stage - Freud’s second psychosexual stage, which lasts from about age 18 months to about age 3, and focuses on the psychological consequences of toilet training.

• phallic stage - The third psychosexual stage, which runs from 3 to 6 years old and focuses on the psychological consequences of attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

• latency stage - Freud’s fourth psychosexual stage, which lasts through the elementary school years, when the child’s energies are focused primarily on school and other tasks that have little to do with sexual or bodily issues.

• genital stage - The fifth and final psychosexual stage, which lasts from puberty through adulthood and focuses on mature, adult sexual relationships.

Humanistic Theory of Personality - A theory based on the ideas of Carl Rogers that emphasizes people’s inherent tendencies toward healthy, positive growth and self-fulfillment.

• i. positive regard - Warmth, acceptance, and love from those around a person.

  • ii. conditions of worth - Requirements that you must meet to earn a person’s positive regard.

  • iii. Self-concept - Your view of who you are.

  • c. Social Cognitive Theory of Personality - A theory that emphasizes the interaction of environment, thought processes, and social factors.

    • i. internal versus external locus of control - The belief that your life is under the control of forces inside of yourself vs The belief that your life is under the control of forces outside of yourself.

    • ii. reciprocal determinism - The theory that three factors—behavior, environment, and cognitions—continually influence each other.

    • iii. Self-efficacy - Your beliefs about your own capabilities.

  • Trait Theory of Personality - A theory that emphasizes the discovery and description of the basic components of personality.

    • i. Five-Factor Model of Personality (Big Five) -An explanation of personality that emphasizes five fundamental traits present in all people to varying degrees.

    • 1. Neuroticism - A personality trait emphasizing the tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and stress.

    • Extraversion - A personality trait emphasizing the tendency to be socially outgoing.

    • openness to experience - A personality trait emphasizing the tendency to be receptive to new or unconventional ideas.

    • Conscientiousness - A personality trait emphasizing the tendency to be organized, responsible, and deliberate.

    • Agreeableness - A personality trait emphasizing the tendency to cooperate and comply with other people.

  • a. Social Psychology (definition) - (1) A basic research specialization in which psychologists focus on how people think about, influence, and relate to each other. (2) The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to each other.

  • b. Social Cognition - A person’s thoughts about other people and the social world.

    • Fundamental Attribution Error - Overestimating the importance of traits and underestimating the importance of the situation when explaining the behavior of other people.

    • Cognitive dissonance - The discomfort caused by having an attitude that contradicts another attitude or a behavior.

    • Conformity (Asch Line Study) - Changes in an individual’s behavior to correspond to the behavior of a group of other people.

    • Obedience (Milgram’s Obedience Study) - Changes in an individual’s behavior to comply with the demands of an authority figure.

    • Deindividuation - A loss of identity and accountability experienced by individuals in groups that can lead to atypical behavior.

    • Stereotypes - Beliefs about a group’s characteristics that are applied very generally, and often inaccurately, to group members.

    • Prejudice -

    • Discrimination - (1) Action based on prejudice or stereotypes toward a social group. (2) The learning process by which stimuli that are different from the conditioned stimulus fail to cause the same conditioned response.

    • Attraction - A psychological phenomenon where individuals are drawn towards each other.

    • Physical attractiveness - The degree to which an individual's physical features are deemed desirable by others.

    • Proximity - The physical or geographical closeness between individuals, which can increase the likelihood of interaction and attraction.

    • Similarity - The degree to which individuals share common traits, interests or backgrounds, which can lead to increased attraction.

    • Reciprocal liking - A mutual feeling of attraction and positive regard between individuals, where both parties express interest in each other.

    • i. Altruism - Completely unselfish concern for others.

    • ii. Bystander effect - The decrease in likelihood that one person will help another person caused by the presence of others also available to help.

    • iii. Diffusion of Responsibility - A decreased sense of obligation to help when others are present.

    • Biological Theory - A theory of abnormality asserting that biological factors within the human body, such as brain structures, neurochemicals, and genes, are the primary causes of psychological disorders.

    • ii. Psychological Theory - A theory of abnormality asserting that psychological factors, including emotions, thoughts, behaviors, and traits, are the primary causes of psychological disorders.

    • iii. Sociocultural Theory - A theory of abnormality asserting that social and cultural factors surrounding the person, rather than factors within the person, are the primary causes of psychological disorders.

    • iv. Biopsychosocial Theory - A uniquely comprehensive psychological perspective that emphasizes biological, psychological, and social factors as influences on behavior.

  • c. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) - The book in which mental disorders are officially defined.

  • Anxiety Disorders - The group of DSM disorders in which the experience of excessive, unjustified anxiety is the primary symptom.

    • generalized anxiety disorder - A disorder involving anxiety symptoms that persist for a long time across a wide range of situations and activities.

    • panic disorder - An anxiety disorder characterized by sudden, intense, unpredictable brief bursts of anxiety.

    • specific phobia - An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive anxiety toward a specific object or situation.

    • social anxiety disorder - An anxiety disorder characterized by an intense and irrational fear of situations in which one may be judged or scrutinized.

  • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - A disorder characterized by unwanted, repetitive thoughts and uncontrollable actions done in response to those thoughts.

  • Major Depressive Disorder - A depressive disorder in which a person experiences at least 2 weeks of depressed mood and a loss of interest in most activities.

  • Bipolar Disorder - A psychological disorder characterized by alternating between extremely high moods and extremely low moods.

  • Eating Disorders - The category of psychological disorders that involve significant disturbances in behaviors related to eating or food.

    • anorexia nervosa - An eating disorder based on a refusal to eat enough food to maintain a minimally normal body weight, based on the person’s height and age.

    • bulimia nervosa - An eating disorder in which an individual exhibits a pattern of overeating followed by drastic attempts to prevent weight gain.

    • binge-eating disorder - An eating disorder with the overeating pattern of bulimia but without the purging.

    • Schizophrenia - A severe psychological disorder in which the person exhibits bizarre disturbances in thinking, perception, feelings, and behavior.

  • Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - A disorder emerging in childhood that features significant problems with attention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, or both.

  • Autism Spectrum Disorder - A disorder emerging in childhood that features significant social interaction deficits and rigid, repetitive patterns of behavior.

    • Dissociative Disorders - The category of psychological disorders in which the person loses awareness of, or becomes disconnected from, essential parts of the self such as memories, emotions, or identity.

    • dissociative identity disorder - A psychological disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct personalities.

    • antisocial personality disorder - A psychological disorder based on a disregard for, and violation of, the rights of other people.

    • borderline personality disorder - A psychological disorder based on instability in many areas of the person’s life, including interpersonal relationships, mood, and self-image.

  • Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist - Psychologists are professionals who study behavior and mental processes VS Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

  • Psychotherapy - A treatment that involves a mental health professional using various techniques to help a person overcome a psychological disorder or improve some aspect of emotional, cognitive, or behavioral functioning.

    • Psychodynamic therapy - Therapy that has the goal of making the unconscious conscious, but more briefly and with more focus on the client’s current life than psychoanalysis.

    • Person-centered therapy - An approach based on the theories of Carl Rogers that emphasizes the tendency toward healthy growth inherent in each person.

    • Behavior therapy - The application of operant and classical conditioning to change outward behavior, with little to no emphasis on the mental processes affecting that behavior.

    • Cognitive therapy - A psychotherapy approach in which therapists help clients change the way they think about life events.

    • Cognitive-Behavior therapy - A hybrid therapy approach that combines an emphasis on logical thinking with the use of conditioning principles to directly change behavior.

    • Integrative Approach to Therapy - A strategy in which the psychotherapist blends styles or techniques to create a new form of psychotherapy.

    • Eclectic Approach to Therapy- A strategy in which the psychotherapist selects the best treatment for a particular client based on evidence from studies of similar clients.

  • Therapeutic Alliance - A trusting and collaborative relationship in which therapist and client work toward shared goals.

  • Evidence Based Practice - An approach to psychotherapy in which the therapist makes decisions based on a combination of three factors: research evidence, therapist expertise, and client characteristics.

  • Confidentiality - When a therapist maintains the privacy of client information.

  • Biomedical Therapy - A treatment for psychological problems that involves medications and medical procedures to directly change the biology of the brain.

    • Psychopharmacology - The treatment of psychological disorders with medications.

    • antipsychotic drugs - Medications used to reduce psychotic symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and bizarre behavior.

    • antianxiety drugs - Medications used to reduce anxiety symptoms.

    • antidepressant drugs - Medications used to reduce depression symptoms (which are also effective in reducing some anxiety symptoms).

    • mood stabilizing drugs - Medications used to lessen the extreme emotional highs and lows of bipolar disorder.

    • ii. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) - A biomedical therapy for severe disorders in which an electric current pass through the brain of the client.

    • iii. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) - A treatment for depression in which a weak electric current repeatedly pulses through a paddle-shaped magnetic coil just outside the person’s head.