Case study: Spanish conquest of the Incan Empire (1532 - 1572)

Causes of conflict

Ideological and political causes:

Inca Civil War (1532)

• After Huayna Capac’s death in 1525 as well as the death of the named successor, there was a power vacuum. The throne was contested by Atahualpa and Huascar, both legitimate sons who belonged to different camps (Quito vs Cuzco, respectively). The conflict escalated to a military conflict, which had Atahualpa as the victor. 

  • The war not only divided the empire through forcing the population to take allegiance to one ‘camp’ but it also meant there was a disjointed army. Essentially, the Inca empire was vulnerable against foreign invaders. 

  • Although Atahualpa won the war and thus was the ‘legitimate’ successor, half of the empire opposed its rule. Therefore, he could be easily deposed.

End of Reconquista and unification of Spain (1492)

• Spain, which had been previously conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate gained independence after reconquering Granada. 

• That same year, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (‘The Catholic Monarchs’) married, unifying the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon and Granada.

  • Cultural differences are still present. A new national identity is formed through a ‘militant Christianity’ which is capable of combating ‘threats’ of Muslim and Jewish presence in the name of Christendom.

  • New government is more stable and is held together by a common foreign policy, which motivates funding of expedition trips.

Economic causes; competition for resources

• Gold was in great demand during the 15th century. This could be used as a single common currency or have various uses for the Church.

  • Pizarro had disembarked in Coaque around the year 1531-2. He seized various gold and silver items and sent large booty (around 200,000 Castellanos de Oro) to Panama, as proof there was wealth in the South. 

  • Conquistadors, members of low-nobility and not an official army of Spain, motivated by earthy motives of wealth and fame, which was their only way to ascend socially.

• On the other hand, taxation in the Incan Empire was unpopular. Taxes were extracted through Mita (or Mit’a) mandatory labour which was use to collect tax revenue as well as build projects (e.g. bridges, road networks)

  • ⅔ of what workers produced was destined to taxes. There was little option of social mobility.

  • The nobility was exempted from taxes and hard labour

Religious causes

• In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued a Papal Bull (Dum Diversas) to Afonso V, King of Portugal which authorised colonisation and submission.

  “To subdue saracens, pagans and other unbelievers to Christ [...] transfer for ever their territory to the Portuguese Crown”

• This bull, effectively called for a Christian doctrine which supported (and encouraged) expedition trips, discoveries, emigration and colonisation in the name of God

• The Pope was Spanish and a close ally of the Catholic Monarchs, who helped him get elected. The Pope was thus obliged to support discoveries with future bulls.

Other causes

Short term:

• Biological warfare: Huayna Capac and his appointed successors allegedly died due to smallpox. Some suggest this epidemic is a cause for the power vacuum which motivated the civil war, leading to political instability.

Long term:

• Discontent of colonised populations/tribes: Some areas were in constant rebellion. For instance, on-going uprisings in Ecuador motivated the creation of another northern capital: Quito

  • This made it possible for Spaniard to form alliances, which meant enlarging their army as well as getting insight.

Historiography: Causes of Conflict

John H. Rowe: Proposes that, contrary to popular belief, military superiority was not the cause of fall of the Inca Empire but rather the alliances and allegiances between conquistadors and the different camps. 

“Spanish dominion was established not by military victories, but by an alliance with the faction that had lost the war, an alliance cemented by the two political killings” (Rowe, 2006, p. 7) 

• In this sense, the civil war and fight for succession never ceased but just adopted a different form. Instead of military action, the fight for succession was now through the planning of meticulous plots which would put the desired successor in a leadership position.

• Allegiance to spanish crown, although there was recognition of Inca government/nobility power. So one can argue Spanish dominion was not established immediately after the killing and deposition of Atahualpa

The White Gods/Conquistador-As-God myth: The myth claims indigenous populations in the Americas believed Spaniards were the reincarnation of gods due to their fair skin, and superior technology, especially ships which they believed to be floating temples and horses, a species unknown to natives.

• Traditionally, it has been used to explain why such powerful empires put little opposition and a small number of conquistadors were able to bring an empire down. 

• However this framework is controversial because it portrays native populations as submissive and Spaniards as naturally clever due to their technological advances. Contemporary historians have offered alternative suggestions: 

  • Felipe Fernandez Armesto: argues that Aztec ‘accurate calendar, extraordinary goldwork and poetry’ should be proof of the civilizations' capacities and intelligence. 

    • The Conquistadors while ‘better equipped’ did not necessarily display superior intelligence, especially considering they were confronting an highly organised and culturally rich empire.

  • Camilla Townsend: proposes the spread of this myth was possible due a biased interpretation of primary sources. She also suggests reinterpretation of sources would reveal complexities. She mainly refers to Mexico/Aztec empire in her examples:

    • Some accounts were written by descendants of the deposed Aztec elite. Therefore, it was convenient to portray old leaders as naive to conceal their fault during the conquest.

    • Spaniards were referred to as teotl (‘god’), however Townsend suggests this word was used as the Aztecs did not know how to address them.

Practices and impact on outcome

Role and significance of leaders

Francisco Pizarro (b. 1478 – d. 1541)

• Born in 1478 in Extremadura, one the Spain’s poorest regions as an illegitimate son.

• 1502: At the age of 24, he sails for the first time to the island of Hispaniola

• 1513: At 35, participated in an expedition led by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa which discovered the Pacific ocean.

• 1524: Created the Company of the Levant between Diego De Almagro and Hernando De Luque. This was a model that spread through colonies

• By the time he embarked to Peru he was a wealthy landowner in Panama and had 30 years of experience fighting indigenous populations (part owner of gold mine, encomienda of 150 native, labour and tribute)

Significance as leader

• 1528: first contact with Inca settlement and nobility in Tumbez. He displayed ‘diplomacy’ in order to hide true intentions and in order to learn about newly found culture. 

• However he made this discovery after diverting from an expedition along with 13 other men, later known as the Trece del Gallo.

  • His action demonstrated great determination and fearlessness to act, highlighting those who followed will be rewarded with gold.

• He was somewhat a skilled negotiator. After first trip to Tumbez he returned to Spain, which granted him the Capitulación de Toledo. 

  • This was done because he wanted to avoid others from claiming a territory that was rich in gold. He also was given the title of governor of Peru, granting him a higher position. 

• Campaign of terror (shock and awe, blitzkrieg campaign): mutilated or burned alive natives who had refused to comply with Spanish demands normally gold or forcing habitants to join their fight. This process was not unique, as Cortes had used it the conquest of the Aztec Empire but Pizarro was more brutal (7,000 vs 3,000) 

  • Effect: “displays to sow terror throughout the local population.” Pizarro’s aim was not to exterminate but control natives.

• Considered a referent of social mobility: He was double stigmatised by being illegitimate and had no ‘family pedigree’ however he received distinctions such as Marquis of His Majesty’s Kingdom of New Castile.

Diego de Almagro (b.  1475 - d. 1538)

• Born as illegitimate and poor. 

• Previous to embarking in the New World in 1514 at the age of 39, Almagro murdered a man in Toledo and was a fugitive. His only escape was starting anew in a different place.

• 1524: Formed the Company of the Levant with Pizarro and De Luque, making him a companion in conquest. 

  • Almagro wanted to be treated as equal, have a realm or governorship of his own.

Significance as leader 

• Compared to Pizarro, Almagro did not have military experience. His role in the company relied on his organisational skills to find and enlist new recruits.

• Eventually he led the camp who opposed Pizarro rule. Through an strategic alliance with Manco Inca (although the emperor realised not to trust the Spaniards) and a siege in Cusco in 1537, he posed a threat. 

  • His actions also aggravated turmoil and is considered the first rebel conquistador.

Manco Inca (b. 1515 – d. 1545)

• Son of Huayna Capac, and allied with the Huascar-Cusco camp. Only male descendant of Huayna Capac when the Spaniards arrived.

  • Pizarro allied with him as he wanted to be perceived as helping with restoring leadership to Cusco-camp after assassinating Atahualpa.

• Crowned at the age of 17 as the sole Inca Emperor and puppet leader.sole inca emperor. His position was of a puppet leader

• He later allied with the Almagro faction in hopes of restoring power. However, after reports from the high priest of abuses, he understood Spaniards could not be trusted and organised a rebellion.

Significance as a leader:

• Military genius. Organised two successful sieges in Lima and Cuzco

• Despite the arrival of foreigners and the increasing rivalries amongst them, he was still powerful given his call for rebellion while he was imprisoned by the Pizarro brothers was received and many obeyed.

• Hampered process of Spanish dominion, not only through military tactics but also because he demanded Spaniards to negotiate with him

• His rebellion and fierce display of power prolonged resistance until 1572, when his son Tupac Amaru I was executed by colonial authorities.

Raising armies: military service and mercenaries; taxation

Inca Empire

• Compulsory for all able-bodied men between the ages 25 to 50. Their duty was decided by lottery.

  • Due to the empire extension, it made them the biggest army of Latin America.

  • Despite little option to ascend, outstanding soldiers were rewarded regardless of their social position.

• Nobles could opt to pursue a military career through attending military school. They commanded the army and received a salary.

  • Additionally, all male descendants of the Sapa Inca attended military school.

• By 1532 when the Spaniards arrived, the military was divided. Atahualpa, who was victorious, had military experience. In addition, his commander-in-chief Challcu Chima was a military genius who had never been defeated in battle. 

• Taxation: Funds raised through Mita.

Conquistadors (Spanish crown)

• Not an official army of Spain. From low-mobility or poor who were motivated by

  • Earthly motives: genuine patriotism which encouraged them to take new territory in the name of the crown. 

    • This would also earn them fame and a raise in status.

    • Motivated by old stories born out of the Reconquista (e.g. El Cid, Amadis de Gaula)

  • Commercial motives: gold in great demand. Gold, silver, precious stones and other exotic products could create wealth.

  • God’s motives: new Spanish identity strongly linked to Catholicism. A military gain was a gain for both the country and Christianity.

    • Likewise, the Reconquista and expulsion of Muslim and Jews had just happened recently. ‘Heresy’ was seen as a threat that had been successfully conquered.

• Additionally, most conquistadors came from central Spain, a region with harsh conditions for agriculture and lack of economic opportunities. 

• These expeditions were both self-financed or received financial aid from the Crown, who normally aimed to spread their control to these new territories.

• Taxation: crown demanded part of seized goods, a practice which was established before America was discovered through the Sietes Partidas (1252), a set of ‘normative rules for the Kingdom’ 

  • When Atahualpa offered a room of gold and silver, this ransom booty by law belonged to the King. However, Pizarro only sent a fifth to the Crown.

Organization of warfare; strategies: land and/or sea

Conquistadors (Spanish crown)

• When the Spaniards met with Atahualpa in Cajamarca, Pizarro had previously designed an elaborate plan to ambush the emperor.

• After Atahualpa was captured, the Spanish put him ‘on trial’. These ‘legal procedures’ were mostly debated within a made-up committee consisting of legal advisors, conquistadors and clergymen which would later become a de-facto practice to justify execution.

  • It is worth mentioning that although lawyers were barred from participating in expeditions (as written in the Capitulación de Toledo (1529)) many made their way to the South. This was presumably because the King wanted to avoid ‘perceived negative effects of Spanish litigations.’

• Atahualpa was executed in July 1533, on the grounds he had called up a rebellion.

  • The Sapa Inca had been encouraged to accept Christianity in order to ask for ‘pardon’, something he ultimately accepted. This was the first instance of Spanish cultural institutions being established in the disgraced empire.

  • Additionally, these legal procedures forced Incas to negotiate. For the Spanish, this quelled potential uprisings, diminishing the actual planning of war tactics. The Incas, however, had no way to defend themselves on the basis of Spanish law.

• Aside from the superiority in arms, the Spaniards were agile horsemen. Likewise, the Incas preferred hand-to-hand combat but soon understood they were in disadvantage.

  • This greatly motivated the last Inca governors to change their tactics from combat to intimidation and sieging. 

  • However it also illustrated a weakness the Incas could use in their favour, by choosing to retreat to the mountains, a terrain almost inaccessible by horse.

Inca Empire and Inca Rebellion

• During the 20 years of the conquest, Incas showed great adaptability. This is particularly true during Manco Inca’s rebellion in 1533.

• They used their geographical knowledge to their favour. Manco inca set his base in Calca, a town hidden in the depths of the Andes.  

  • This did not only give them an advantage as the Incas were familiar with roads networks which connected the empire but for Spaniards, who performed their military campaigns and expeditions by horse, made it impossible to enter. 

• Aware that it was difficult to confront Spaniards which were better equipped, the Inca rebellion started a campaign of terror by ambushing and assassinating isolated encomenderos in December 1535.

• These spontaneous attacks forced encomenderos to take refuge in Cuzco. The city was successfully sieged by unleashing a barrage of stones and the haven where Spanish were hiding, burned. 

• On the battlefield, the Incan military structure was more complex. This was because they had a greater number of troops but also because different military strategists led their own legions which were in charge of occupying a specific location around Cuzco. This resulted in a classic military encirclement.

Significance of technological developments

• The advent of gunpowder shifted the European economic model from feudalism to a more capitalist one. Servants no longer needed the protection of a lord and searched for opportunities in cities.

  • Cities became an important centre for negotiations. Those who had some money to invest could set up companies, where a group of like-minded individuals were equal stakeholders and autonomous.

  • Companies became the de-facto conquest mode, as many hoped to acquire wealth equal to that of European feudal lords.

    • Gunpowder was not only a military advancement but it partly allowed the creation of conquistadores.

• At the beginning of the conquest the use of modern warfare aided in the successful capture of Atahualpa. The inca army was at a disadvantage as it preferred hand-to-hand combat and was confronted with arquebuses and skilled horsemen.

  • This also deterred any significant military action for some time, until Manco Inca’s rebellion in 1535.

• However Spanish military and technological superiority is contested since it took around 20 years to establish Spanish dominion. Likewise, conquistadores suffered greatly during the sieges of Cuzco and Lima, which used methods resembling guerillas (burning of havens, spontaneous assassinations) and military tactics such as encirclement. 

  • Despite technological disadvantage, Inca methods proved to be effective and ingenious.

Influence and/or involvement of foreign power

• While conquistadors were not an official army of Spain, the crown in many cases financed expedition trips.

  • This was particularly true for the conquest of Peru, since Pizarro had gone to court in 1529 and exhibited products and even kidnapped indigenous people before the court. In exchange, the Monarchs agreed to finance and continue to support colonisation through the Capitulacion de Toledo.

• Nonetheless, the Crown did not invest a large sum into the Conquest. Its most sizable contribution was continuously supplying armaments. 

  • This potentially contributed to the period of political instability between Spaniards in Peru who felt entitled to rule the land as they had participated in the conquest from the onset.

  • Additionally, making small investments in a high risk ‘business’ entitled them access to be notified of any new discovery. If nothing was found, the loss wouldn’t be significant but if there was new territory, the Crown could rightfully claim it as well as spreading and establishing its power in American territory.

Effects

The success and/or failure of peacemaking

Fallout between Pizarro and de Almagro

• In 1529, the Capitulación de Toledo, a decree signed by the Spanish crown, supported Pizarro’s continuous discovery and conquest of Peru as well as designating land distribution between Pizarro and de Almagro.

  • Originally, Pizarro received the fortress/province of Peru while de Almagro received encomienda in modern-day Tumbes.

• However, upon further land discovery, King Charles amended the decree signed in 1529 through the Las Capitulaciones de 1534 in an attempt to avoid further disputes. 

• Disputes between Pizarro and de Almagro began to arise, due to a perceived power imbalance. This would also spawn a division between those who were rewarded by Pizarro and those who thought they were treated unfairly.

  • Pizarro came back from his audience with the crown in 1529 with an exclusive permission which authorised him to conquer the Inca Empire. In addition he was also named Governor of Peru.

  • In contrast, de Almagro received the title of governor of Nueva Toledo, a land which was unexplored.

    • Almagro made an expedition southward in 1535 in hopes of finding a rich empire. He returned in early 1537 after encountering an aggressive tribe and no precious metals.

• Another reason for the dispute was the lack of clear boundaries. This left Cuzco unclaimed but Almagro argued the boundary line could ‘pass’ diagonally, thus incorporating the capital to his governorship. 

• Almagro was captured in the Battle of Salinas (1538) and later tried and killed in July 1538. This created resentment between his camp, since Hernando Pizarro, was responsible for his execution.

• In June 1541, a group of Almagristas assassinated Pizarro after storming his home in Lima.

  • Both assassinations would effectively leave their respective governorships without a leader. Also, the American colonies had no leader, since the Crown conferred this title to Pizarro. Additionally, it created political turmoil and violence.

Inca Rebellion

• Amidst a power struggle between the Spaniards, Cuzco, the empire’s capital, was still not claimed by either conquistador.

• Naturally, Manco Inca, a brother of Huascar, claimed to be the heir and ruler of Cuzco. His position was even legitimised after Pizarro crowned him.

  • However, Pasac, his cousin and Atoc-Sopa, his half-brother were rumoured to be plotting against him.

• Initially, Manco Inca allied with Almagro in hopes of securing power but upon reports by high priest Villac Umu (who had accompanied Almagro on an expedition to conquer land in the South) which illustrated the Spaniard’s brutality and ambition for gold. 

  • Manco Inca soon realised the Conquistadors true motivation to conquer and rule the Empire.

• In November 1535, Manco Inca took his first step to rebellion through a series of speeches which encouraged habitants to  rebel.

  • Although he was captured and made prisoner by the Pizarro brothers, his speeches resonated with commoners, high ranking officials and leaders. This meant that despite the civil war and political instability, the ‘Inca’s chain of command’ (and the Sapa Inca’s power) was not undermined.

• When Manco Inca launched his full-on attack, it demonstrated that despite the Spaniard’s superiority in armament, Inca tactics were witty and effective. This hampered and threatened Spanish dominion.

Spanish Crown’s consolidation of power

• Gonzalo Pizarro manages to seize absolute power by executing Blasco Nuñez Vela, the first viceroy tasked with enforcing New Laws and controlling the power disputes.

  • Pizarro, the only living member who took part in the Conquest of the Inca Empire, refuses to be ruled over and to concede power to the Crown.

• The Battle of Jaquijahuna (1548) ensues. Pedro de la Gasca, the new viceroy, arrives and soon raises an army. Gonzalo Pizarro is defeated, executed and exhibited as a traitor. Most of Pizarro’s troops changed allegiance after de la Gasca offered pardons.

  • This event is the first instance where Spanish dominion is establishedd and the crown consolidated power. Although there is a small bastion in Vilcabamba led by Titu Cusi, Manco Inca’s son.

Economic, political and territorial impact

Economic

• The Inca Empire had a redistributive economy: crop production was controlled by the state and then redistributed according to the needs of the population. Individuals did not own land, had businesses or made a profit

  • Incas did not have a form of currency and relied on exchanging goods in order to ‘purchase’ something and offering labour through Mit’a to pay taxes.

• Establishment of the encomienda system, whereby:

• An Indian would work in a land (upon threats of punishment or death) owned by a Spaniard, who was charged with ‘protecting’ and ‘Christianizing’ them.

  • This system was based on the medieval manorial system, where a peasant worked for a manorial lord and paid a portion of their produce in return for protection.

• In reality this system did not grant them anything of the promise. While natives tributed in the Empire, they received protection and food security as all collected crops were stored in a warehouse. Now, they had virtually no rights and all surplus was destined to purchase goods from overseas as well as African slaves.

  • Many newly arrived Spaniard aspired to be encomenderos since many could live from that produced by their encomiendas.

  • The encomienda meant there was private land ownership although it was a privilege only available to a select group.

Taxation

• A capitation tax was imposed to anyone officially classified as indigenous. Therefore, one was encourage to ‘whiten’

• Indian nobility was liable to pay. Prices and access to community land varied depending on the tributary’s province of origin.

• However some individuals (such as caciques, collectors, nobles, church servants) were exempted from paying taxes. 

  • Others resorted to bribery as a form of exemption. However, this often resulted in limited access to community land.

• Those classified as ‘non-indigenous’ however had to pay a range of other taxes

• Colonial Church operated as a business entity and fees for sacraments varied depending on the institution.

Political

• Inca nobility was recognised by Spanish authorities in the form of caciques, a hereditary native nobility. 

  • Caciques were in charge of the civil and criminal jurisdiction over their subjects under the supervision of Spanish authorities.

  • Privileges: exempted from paying tribute and forced labour and the right to have their cases tried by the audiencias, bypassing corregidores, their immediate superiors. Likewise, they were entitled to honours similar to those of hidalgos of Castile.

• Viceroy, appointed by the King and its representative on American territories, become head of state, replacing the Sapa Inca, a hereditary position legitimised by divine right (sons of Inti)

• Colonial institutions characterised by bureaucracy and legal hurdles. The Spanish American colony was composed by:

  • Spanish king: Created power structure to help him rule over the colonies.

  • Council of the Indies (est. 1524): Highest administrative, legislative, occasional court and advisory body in colonies. Governed from Spain.

  • Viceroy: Governor and representative of the Spanish king overseas.

  • Audiencia: Checked and balanced (limited) viceroy’s power.

Territorial

• The Spanish Crown automatically inherited the territories of the Inca empire. Further expeditions gave them access to further land, however their scope was limited through the Treaty of Tordesillas (1497), which stated how New World discoveries would be divided between the Spanish and Portuguese crown.

• The Inca Empire functioned on a redistributive economy where land ownership did not exist, as opposed to a Spanish economy which granted lands to encomenderos.

Social and religious impact

Social

• Introduction of a caste system, which divided habitants due their ethnicity and indicated the taxation they were obliged to pay.

  • Peninsulares: Born in Spain. Could hold highest ranking in colonial institutions

  • Creoles: Descendants of Spaniards (Peninsulares). Despite ethnic and cultural origin, they could not assume leadership of colonial institutions.

  • Mestizos: descendants of Spaniards (or Europeans) and Indigenous.

  • Indigenous/Mulattoes: 

  • Africans: Slaves. Performed forced labour.

• Ethnic division and differentiation within indigenous population was not comprehended and thus overlooked by Spaniards. All native habitants classified as ‘indios’

• Incan nobility were given privileges such as exemption of taxes, exemption from forced work and treated in the same fashion as Spanish hidalgos.

Religious

• The Church became the most important institution, given its power intertwined with colonial institutions and royal power.

  • At the start of colonisation, Spanish land title was authorised through papal bulls.

  • A rich institution since it was common to acquire property through donations. Other sources of income include tithes, first fruits and parochial fees.

    • Additionally, it received large income with few expenses compared to other colonial institutions which had to spend income in maintaining government function and promoting various civic enterprises. 

• Moreover, The Church had influence in other areas of everyday life, more notably in the cultural and intellectual sphere.

  • Opening of first schools and universities at monasteries.

  • Books and intellectual movements (e.g. renaissance) were not transported to American territories due to ecclesiastical censorship.

• The major influence they exerted also led them to abuse their power.

  • Persecution through extirpacion de idolatrias campaigns amongst native population and the Inquisition, to Peninsulares and Creoles habitants. Both institutions mostly relied on baseless claims, without further inquiry.

    • Additionally, the extirpacion campaigns, through destruction of Andean sites (e.g. huacas), attempted to erase indigenous culture at large.

Demographic changes and population movements

• Ethnicity in the late Inca Empire was defined through geographical or territorial affinity. However, prior to Inca dominance there were different ethnicities which were now grouped and assigned an identity linked to their geographical area. This lead to many habitants from assuming a double identity through:

  • Identifying with one of the four quarters (suyus) of the empire which bore ethnic connotations as well as their own tribe.

  • The ‘Archipielago’ system where members of one group accessed resources from other geographical areas by settling as ‘outliers’ in the area. There was a visible ethnic differentiation but also assimilation.

  • Mitmaqkuna or Mitimas: a policy of forced migration where whole tribes would move to recently conquered areas. This was done as a measure of state security, guaranteeing royalty to the Sapa Inca and spreading Inca culture. These tribes often had a strong tie to their ‘ancient’ home.

• Moreover, there were distinctions amongst the noble class, depending on their ‘purity of lineage.’ 

  • Main ‘collana’ group, intermediate and mixed ‘payan’ group and inferior ‘cayan’ group.

• This distinction was also present with commoners, attributing certain stereotypes and characteristics.

  • Chronicler F. G. Poma de Ayala assigned pejorative traits to habitants of Collasuyu in his accounts.

How did demographics change?

• It can be argued Incan distinctions of blood was to some extent ‘precursor’ of the caste system installed by Spaniards.

  • However, the Spaniards failed to comprehend the different and complex ethnic identities.

• Spaniards abolished Mitimas, so most tribes returned to their original home.

• The Archipielago system was immediately changed for the encomienda system.

  • Derived from a Medieval system. Indigenous worked for a master (Spanish conquistador) who was in charge of ‘protecting’ and ‘Christianizing’ them.

  • Since there were no territorial dimensions, the encomiendas were allocated over the population of a cacical sphere.

    • This meant populations were randomly grouped and uprooted from their ‘home’ communities.

Population movements

• Reducciones: a resettlement program started in 1570 under viceroy Francisco de Toledo. The aim of this program was to move native populations to Spanish-style towns, in order to be surveilled by civil authorities and parish priests.

  • This program displaced at least 1.5 million people and was possible due to Toledo’s extraordinary organisational skills.

Arrival of foreigners

• Upon hearing of the success of the conquest and richess available in the defeated empire, a new wave of Spanish migrants moved with hopes of becoming instantly rich.

• During an audience with King Charles, Hernando Pizarro, Francisco Pizarro’s brother, was granted permission to transform tariff-free 200 African slaves to work in Peruvian mines.

  • By 1544, there were around 5,000 Spaniard and 200-300 Africans to help in the progress of colonisation.