Identification

Modernization theory (Lipset) → Seymour Martin Lipset argued that economic development leads to democracy. His theory suggests that as societies become wealthier, more educated, and industrialized, they develop values and institutions that support democratic governance.

State (definitional features) → A state is a political entity with a defined territory, a permanent population, a government that exercises authority, and sovereignty (the ability to make and enforce laws without external interference).

(Sources of) Legitimacy (Weber) → Max Weber identified three types of legitimacy: traditional (based on customs and long-standing practices), charismatic (derived from the personal appeal of a leader), and legal-rational (grounded in established laws and institutions).

Three waves of democratization → Samuel Huntington described three global waves of democratization: (1) the first wave (1820s–1920s) driven by revolutions and gradual political reforms, (2) the second wave (post-WWII) with decolonization and democratic transitions, and (3) the third wave (1970s–1990s) with democratization in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia.

Definition of democracy: Procedural vs. substantive → A procedural definition focuses on democratic processes like free elections and political competition, while a substantive definition considers broader outcomes such as civil liberties, political equality, and social justice.

Fused-power system → A political system where executive and legislative powers are closely linked, as in parliamentary systems where the executive branch (prime minister and cabinet) emerges from and is accountable to the legislature.

Semi-presidential system → A government structure combining elements of presidential and parliamentary systems, where a directly elected president shares executive power with a prime minister appointed by the legislature (e.g., France).

“Prime ministerial” government → A system in which the prime minister dominates policymaking and decision-making, often reducing the influence of the cabinet and parliament.

Divided government (in presidential systems) → A situation in which the executive branch (president) is controlled by one political party while the legislature (or part of it) is controlled by another, often leading to gridlock.

Coalition government (in parliamentary systems) → A government formed when multiple political parties cooperate to achieve a majority in parliament, often necessary in systems with proportional representation.

Typology of Constitution → Constitutions can be categorized based on various criteria, such as written vs. unwritten, rigid vs. flexible, or unitary vs. federal, defining the structure and principles of a state.

Referendum → A direct vote in which citizens decide on a specific policy issue or constitutional change, often binding or advisory, depending on the legal framework.