ap psych midterm review

AP Psychology Midterm Review 

Unit 0 Review

1. In your own words, describe each of the following approaches to Psychology. Give an example of a topic they would examine. 

   1. Biological

The focus for the biological approach to psychology is on physical and biological bases of behavior. Key concepts include brain structure, neurotransmitters, and genetics. An example of a topic they would examine is a researcher studying the effects of a new drug on brain activity. 

2. Evolutionary

The focus for the evolutionary approach to psychology is on how the theory of evolution can explain psychological processes. Key concepts include natural selection, adaptation, and survival of the fittest. An example of a topic they would examine is a researcher studying the evolution of mating preferences. 

3. Behavior Genetics

The focus for the behavior genetics approach to psychology is on how genetic and environment influence behavior. Key concepts include nature v. nurture and genetic studies. An example of a topic they would examine is specific genes that influence behavior and the mechanism of its action.

4. Psychoanalytic

The focus for the psychoanalytic / psychodynamic approach to psychology is on the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships. Key concepts include defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages, identity, ego, and superego. An example of a topic they would examine is a therapist helping a patient understand their childhood trauma and how it impacts their current relationships.

5. Behavioral 

The focus for the behavioral approach to psychology is on learned behaviors, conditioning, and reinforcement. Key concepts include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and positive + negative reinforcement. An example of a topic they would examine is a teacher using a reward system to encourage students to complete their work.

6. Cognitive

The focus for the cognitive approach to psychology is on mental processes, memory, thinking, and problem-solving. Key concepts include attention, perception, language, and decision-making. An example of a topic they would examine is a therapist helping a patient identify and change negative thought patterns.

7. Humanistic

The focus for the humanistic approach to psychology is on motivation, self-actualization, and personal growth. Key concepts include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and unconditional positive regard. An example of a topic they would examine is a therapist helping a patient develop a stronger sense of self-worth. 

8. Social-Cultural

The focus for the sociocultural approach to psychology is on how culture influences human behavior. Key concepts include cultural norms, values, and beliefs. An example of a topic they would examine is a researcher comparing the parenting styles of different cultures.

2. Example the difference between a case study, survey, naturalistic observation, experiment, and correlational study. Identify strengths and weaknesses for each.

A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual or small group who might have a highly unusual trait. Strengths of case studies include details of subjects, unique quality or situation, and unethical treatment. Weaknesses include no correlational data, no generalizability, and time-consuming. A survey is a questionnaire where a researcher tries to find out opinions and intentions. Strengths include cheap, representative if you can find a diverse population, easy to administer, and can gather a large amount of data. Weaknesses include biased sample, social desirability bias [if you want to maintain order within a group, your answers might change], wording, and self-report bias. Naturalistic observation is observing and recording natural behavior. Strengths include ecological validity. Weaknesses include no manipulation of variables. Characteristics of experiments include independent variables, dependent variables, experimental groups, and control groups. Strengths include a larger amount of control over variables. Weaknesses include confounding variables, or uncontrolled variables that impact results. Correlation studies look at the extent to which two variables are related. Strengths include ability to predict behavior. Weaknesses include the directionality and third variable problems.

3. Explain what the following terms are and what they have in common: falsifiable, operational definition, replication.

The above terms are all elements of research design. Falsifiable means that it must be possible to prove the hypothesis false. The operational definition is a definition of a variable or condition in terms of the specific operation, procedures, or observable behaviors. Replication is the ability to redo the experiment.

4. Create an example of an experiment. Define the hypothesis, IV, DV. Provide examples of some potential confounding variables.

hypothesis - SPF levels on sunscreen are meaningless; they all have the same effectiveness.

independent variable - different SPF levels of sunscreen

dependent variable - sun damage on skin

confounding variables - amt of time in sun, temperature of day

5. How are random assignments and random sampling different and why are they critical in experimentation? Explain how bias can impact research. 

Random assignment is an equal chance of placement, establishing internal validity. Random sampling is when every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample, which helps researchers select a representative sample. They are important to make sure results are generalizable, or can be applicable to multiple groups of people. Bias can impact research. Researchers might stretch interpretation of results to match with hypotheses.

6. Explain the concepts and provide an example for each: Hindsight Bias, Confirmation Bias, Overconfidence.

Hindsight bias is the tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen. An example of this would be insisting you knew the winning team of a sports game would win beforehand. Confirmation bias is the tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence. An example of this would be when writing a research paper, you are trying to find evidence that supports your arguments. Overconfidence is a cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s actual ability to perform a task successfully, by a belief that one’s performance is better than that of others, or by excessive certainty in the accuracy of one’s beliefs. An example of this would be choosing to not study for the midterm, trusting in your preexisting knowledge of the content.

7. Define the measures of central tendency. Draw a positive and negative skew as well as normal distribution (label the percentages)

measures of central tendency - mean, median mode

mean - avg

median - middle value

mode - value that pops up most

8. What does statistical significance mean?

Statistical significance is a p-value less than .005, and it is an indication of strong evidence against the null hypothesis.  

9. What are the ethical requirements in Psychological research? Define each and provide an example of how it would be obtained. 

Ethical requirements include no coercion; informed consent; anonymity or confidentiality; risk; and debriefing. To prevent coercion, the participation must be voluntary, and participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent. Informed consent is achieved when the research the participants thought they were consenting is similar enough to the actual study to give the informed consent meaning. Anonymity or confidentiality is achieved when the participants' privacy is protected. Their identities and actions must not be revealed by the researcher. Participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk. Typically, it is considered permissible for participants to experience temporary discomfort or stress, but activities that might cause someone long-term mental or physical harm must be avoided. Risk is interpreted by the review board. Debriefing occurs after the study. Participants should be told the purpose of the study and provided ways to contact the researchers about the results.

10. What is the difference between Basic and Applied Research? Provide an example for each.  

Basic research looks into foundational principles and theories of science, driven by curiosity and the aspiration to expand the frontiers of understanding. Applied research focuses on analysis intended to solve practical problems, aiming to bring about real-world impact and deliver pragmatic solutions, through the analysis of the ways cultures, languages, and institutions shape our understanding of the world . An example of basic research is investigating how societies construct reality. An example of applied research is designing programs or interventions to help at-risk youth, building on the foundational knowledge of psychology, sociology, and education.

Unit 1 Review

1. In your own words, describe the firing process of a neuron. Notate the specific parts of the neuron and their role. 

• resting potential - neurons are at rest

  • - charge inside neuron during resting potential

  • potential to fire, but it has not activated yet

• threshold - min intensity needed to fire a stimulus 

• all-or-none principle - identical magnitude of a neuron’s action potential

  • when neurons are firing, they don’t do it halfway

    • either they fire or they don’t

• depolarization - movement of a cell’s membrane potential to a more + value

  • Na+ rushes inside the cell, disturbing it from the resting state

    • as a result, K+ leaves the cell

• action potential - neural impulse; electrical charge that travels down axon

  • electrical signals 

• refractory period - a neuron’s inability to fire

  • after a neuron fires, it can’t immediately fire again.

    • there’s a lag period that has to occur before a neuron goes back into resting potential + can fire again

• reuptake - reabsorption

  • the body reabsorbs neurotransmitters that haven’t been used

The dendrites receive signals from neighboring neurons. The axon transmits the signal to the neuron body. The 

axon terminal transmits signals to other neurons’ dendrites or tissues. The myelin sheath speeds up signal transmission along the axon.

2. What are the similarities and differences between neurotransmitters and hormones? Provide an example for each category and its purpose. 

• neurotransmitters

  • internal

  • nervous system

  • quick-acting

• hormone

  • internal

  • endocrine system

  • long-lasting 

An example of a neurotransmitter is endorphins, which modulate the experience of pain or pleasure, commonly 

referred to as natural painkillers. An example of a hormone is ghrelin, which is a hunger stimulant. 

3. Draw a picture of the human nervous system tree. Notate the central, peripheral, autonomic and somatic and make a brief note about what each section contains/engages in.

4. What are the 3 types of psychoactive drugs and how do they impact the nervous system?

The three types of psychoactive drugs are agonist, antagonist, and reuptake inhibitors. Agonists enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter. Antagonists prevent the effects of a neurotransmitter. Reuptake inhibitors prevent the process of reuptake, thus enhancing the effects of the neurotransmitter.

5. Identify the parts of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and brainstem briefly explain their function.

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of your brain's surface, located on top of the cerebrum. The cerebral cortex carries out essential functions of your brain, like memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness, and sensory functions. The limbic system contains the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus, and the system controls memories. Damage to this system could result in amnesia. The brainstem contains the reticular formation, which controls sleep, coordination, and alertness. The brainstem is the oldest region of the brain, and it is responsible for automatic survival skills like breathing and heart rate.

6. What are the tools to examine the brain? 

An EEG is used to read brain waves. CT scans take photographs of the brain to identify damage. A PET scan looks at brain activity by observing consumption of glucose. An MRI is used to look at pictures of soft tissues in the brain. An fMRI is used to see blood flow to each part of the brain. 

7. Describe the following concepts and provide an example for each: Absolute Threshold, Difference Threshold, Sensory Adaptation, Weber’s Law.

Absolute threshold is the minimum amount of energy needed to produce sensation more than 50% of the time, and this is done when taking a hearing or vision test. Difference threshold is the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be consistently and accurately detected 50% of the time, and it is done when changing the volume of the TV. Sensory adaptation is when sensory receptors cells are constantly stimulated, they undergo a loss of sensitivity to stimuli, and it occurs when people don’t recognize the smell of their own house because they’re so used to it. Weber’s law is the relationship between actual and received differences in stimulus intensity. An example is saltiness of taste, which is 20%, meaning that you need a lot of salt to taste a difference. 

8. In your own words, describe the process of how sight and sound are processed. Notate the specific parts of the eye/ear and their role. Include the concepts of wavelength, hue, intensity and amplitude.

sight:

The physical characteristics that help determine our sensory experience of vision are the light’s wavelength and its intensity. Wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next, and it determines the hue. Hue is the visible color your eyes see, like the green grass or blue sky. Intensity is the amount of energy in the light waves, and it influences the brightness.

shorter wavelengths are blueish [cool-toned]; longer wavelengths are reddish [warm-toned]

Light enters the eye through the cornea, which protects the eye and bends light to provide focus. Light then passes through the pupil, which is a small, adjustable opening. The iris surrounds the pupil, and it also controls the pupil’s size. The iris is a colored muscle that dilates or constricts in response to light intensity. The lens is behind the pupil, and it is a transparent structure that changes shape in a process called accommodation to help focus incoming light rays into an image on the retina. The retina is a multilayered tissue on the eyeball's sensitive inner surface. 

The rods and cones are retinal receptor cells. The rods detect black, white, and grey, and they are important for peripheral and night vision. The cones detect fine detail and color, and they are used in daytime or well-lit conditions. The light energy triggers chemical changes, sparking neural signals and activating nearby bipolar cells. The bipolar cells activate the neighboring ganglion cells, whose axons twine together to form the optic nerve, which carries the information to the thalamus, which remains ready to distribute the information. Blind spots occur when the optic nerve leaves the eye, going to a place without receptor cells. Cones are located in and around the fovea, which is the central focal point in the retina.

optic nerve carries info to brain

blind spots - parts of optic nerve w/o receptors 

fovea has huge clusters of receptors, especially cones

Feature detectors are nerve cells in the brain that respond to features of a stimulus. Examples of features include shape, angle, or movement. Parallel processing is the ability to process many aspects of a problem at the same time. For example, when looking at an object, people process color, form, motion, and depth all at the same time. 

ex. of feature detectors include rods + cones

parallel processing is when feature detectors work together

sound:

Audition is the sense or acting of hearing. 

The amplitude of sound waves is what determines the loudness of sound. The length, or frequency, of the sound waves determines the pitch. Frequency is the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. Pitch is a tone’s experienced highness or lowness. Long waves have low frequency and low pitch, whereas short waves have high frequency and high pitch. Decibels is the unit used to measure sound.

decibels measures the loudness of sound; 0 decibels being the absolutely threshold for hearing

pitch - how high, low, short, or flat the sound is

Sound waves enter the outer ear, and the outer ear moves these sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum, which is a tight membrane, causing it to vibrate. The middle ear has three bones: the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. These bones amplify the vibrations and transmit them to the cochlea. The cochlea is a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear. The vibrations then go into the inner ear, and the incoming vibrations cause the cochlea's membrane or the oval window to vibrate, moving around the liquid that fills the tube. The motion causes ripples in the basilar membrane, bending the hair cells lining the surface of the membrane. The hair cell movement triggers impulses in the nearby nerve cells, and the axons of these cells converge to form the auditory nerve, which sends neural messages through the thalamus to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe to be processed by the brain.

cochlea is snail shaped

hair cells convert vibrations → electrical impulses

The brain detects loudness from a soft, pure tone that activates only the few hair cells attuned to its frequency. The brain interprets loudness from the number of activated hair cells, rather than the intensity of the hair cell’s response.

9. What are the different theories of sound processing, briefly describe each. 

The two theories of decipher pitch are the place and frequency theories. The place theory links the pitch heard with the place the cochlea’s membrane was stimulated. The frequency theory says the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, allowing one to sense pitch.

10. Explain the difference between sensation and perception.

Sensation is the process by which we receive information from the environment. Perception is the interpretation of info from the environment so that we can identify its meaning.

Unit 2 Review

1. Draw an image of each of the major Gestalt principles and briefly describe figure-ground and provide an example. 

Figure-ground relates to the principle that perceptions have two parts: a figure or object that stands out in good contour and an indistinct, homogeneous background.

ex.

2. What is selective attention? How does it influence inattentional blindness and the cocktail party effect?

Selective attention is the ability to focus on one stimulus and ignore others. Inattentional blindness and the cocktail party effect fall under the umbrella of selective attention. Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice the existence of an unexpected item. The cocktail party effect is the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises.

3. Explain the term Perceptual Constancy. How does this apply to optical illusions?

Perceptual constancy is when someone perceives something as being the same, despite differing circumstances. This applies to optical illusions. For example, the blue-black vs white-gold dress debate falls under color constancy. Color constancy is the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same color under different conditions of illumination.

4. What is framing and how does it apply to Elizabeth Loftus’s research?

Framing is the process of defining the context or issues surrounding a question, problem, or event in a way that serves to influence how the context or issues are perceived and evaluated. This applies to Elizabeth Loftus’ research, which found that memory of an event can be highly flexible; the original memory can be shifted through the way questions about the event are framed. 

5. Define and provide an example for a Concept, Schema, and Prototype.

A concept forms the basis of thought and are mental representations of objects and categories. They are like categories and an example would be furniture. Schema are frameworks for thinking. An example would be what anyone from Phillipsburg would think of when thinking about football. A prototype is a mental image or “best example” of a concept. For example, when you think of a vehicle, some might think of buses and cars, while others might think of carriages and tractors. 

6. Describe the following stages of memory and specific ways we can forget information in those stages: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval.

Encoding is the process of information into the memory system; you take in information with your senses. It can be impacted by stress and fatigue. Storage is the retention of encoded material over time, and it includes short and long term memory. Information can be forgotten when it is transferred from short to long term memory. Retrieval is the process of getting the information out of memory storage, and it can be impacted by worry, stress, or fatigue.  

7. Provide an example for each of the following Retrograde Amnesia, Anterograde Amnesia, Source Amnesia, Proactive Interference, Retroactive Interference. 

retrograde amnesia - amnesia moves backwards

• ex. forgetting old memories

anterograde amnesia - amnesia moves forward

• ex. forgetting new memories

source amnesia - impaired memory for how, when, or where information was learned

• ex. knowing how to walk, but not remembering the process of learning

proactive interference - old info blocks out new info

• ex. singing lyrics incorrectly, despite being corrected, because that is the original way you learned it

retroactive interference - new info blocks out old info

• ex. learning English, overriding your knowledge of your original language

8. Explain the following problem-solving methods and provide an example for each: Availability Heuristic, Representative Heuristic, Algorithm, and Insight.

availability heuristic - a mental shortcut where judgements are based on info that is most easily brought to mind

• ex. when shopping for something, you’ll reach for a well known brand 

representative heuristic - a mental shortcut that involves judging whether something belongs to a given class on the basis of its similarity to other members of that class

• ex. if x is similar to y, and a certain solution worked for y, it must work for x as well

algorithm - a defined procedure or set of rules used to accomplish a task

• ex. if we are supposed to do x to solve y, then 

insight - the clear and often sudden discernment of a solution to a problem by means that are not obvious and may never become so, even after one has tried hard to work out how one has arrived at the solution

• ex. someone w/h an art degree could provide unique insight to help solving a scientific problem bc they have diff thinking process

9. What is the difference between crystallized and fluid intelligence? Define each of following major theories of intelligence:

Crystalized intelligence is reasoning and verbal skills; facts; and things you learn in school. Fluid intelligence is spatial abilities, rote memory, and things that come natural to you. You cannot learn them in school, and they decrease over time.

1. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

   1. Gardener believed that there exists at least 8 diff types of intelligences, possibly a 9th.

      1. linguistic - a master of spoken + written language

         1. bilingual, good @ writing in gen

      2. logical-mathematical - skilled @ deductive reasoning, detecting patterns, + logical thinking

         1. problem-solving, managers, leaders

         2. whole picture

      3. spatial - seeing + mapping the world in 3d

         1. artists + architects 

      4. musical - capacity to recognize, reproduce, + reflect on music

         1. people that are good at music

         2. multiple diff instruments, perfect pitch 

      5. body-kinesthetic - using one’s body in highly differentiated + skilled ways

         1. someone good at sports + coordination

      6. intrapersonal - understanding yourself, what you feel, and what you want

         1. knowledge of yourself + your abilities 

         2. knowing your strengths + weaknesses

      7. interpersonal - communicating + reading people

         1. knowing how to read the room + talk to people

      8. naturalist - understanding nature + organic processes

         1. outdoorsy, understand nature

         2. good at hiking + hunting + stuff

      9. (possibly existential intelligence) 

2. Charles’ Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)

   1. used factor analysis + discovered that what we see as many diff skills is actually one gen intelligence [G]

   2. if you’re good at one subj, you're usually good at many others

3. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

   1. most commonly accepted theory today

   2. 3 types of intelligence

      1. analytical - mental components to solve problems

         1. what IQ tests assess

         2. book smarts

      2. creative - intellectual + motivational processes that lead to novel solutions, ideas, + products

         1. problem solving

      3. practical - ability to size up new situations + adapt to real-life demands

         1. street smarts

10. What are the 3 components for a good test? Explain each. What are the pros and cons of using tests for intelligence? What are the IQ scores for intellectual giftedness and disability?

• standardized - the questions have been piloted on similar populations + the scores fall on a normal distribution

  • imp for them to not be biased

• reliable - test-retest, split-halves methods

  • if you take it multiple times, you’ll get the same results

  • getting accurate results even if you take half the test

• validity - content, predictive, or construct 

  • is it relevant?

Intelligence is subjective, so tests could be seen as limiting. It provides discouraging labels. However, tests are good to assess and compare someone’s ability at one specific skill. 

• high iq - above 135

• below 70 - intellectual disability 

Unit 3 Review

Development

1. What is a zygote, and how long does this stage typically last?

A zygote is a fertilized egg and the first stage of prenatal development, and this stage typically lasts about two weeks.

2. What significant development occurs by the sixth month of the fetal stage?

At the sixth month of the fetal stage, the stomach and other organs of the fetus have formed enough to survive outside of the mother. The baby can hear, respond to sounds, and respond to lights. 

3. Define puberty, and briefly describe the changes that happen to boys and girls at this time.

Puberty is the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. The landmark for puberty for females is the first menstrual cycle, and the landmark for puberty for males is the first ejaculation. 

4. According to the source, what are primary sexual characteristics? Give examples.

Primary sexual characteristics are body structures that make reproduction possible. Male primary sex characteristics are the penis, the scrotum and the ability to ejaculate when matured. Female primary sex characteristics are the vulva, vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix, and the ability to give birth and menstruate when matured.

5. Explain Freud’s stages of Psychosexual Development.

   • oral stage

     • seek pleasure via mouths

     • babies put everything in their mouths

       • ages 0 to 2

     • people fixated in this stage tend to overeat, smoke, or have a childhood dependence on things

   • anal stage

     • develops during toilet training

       • ages 2 to 4

     • libido is focused on controlling waste + expelling waste

     • a person fixated may become overly controlling / retentive or out of control / expulsive  

   • phallic stage

     • children first recognize their gender

       • ages 4 to 7

     • causes conflict in families w/h Oedipus and Electra Complexes

     • fixation can cause later problems in relationships

   • latency stage

     • libido is hidden

       • ages 7 to 11

     • cooties stage

     • Freud believed that fixation in this stage could lead to sexual issues

   • genital stage

     • libido is focused on their genitals

       • ages 12 to death

     • Freud thought fixation in this stage was normal

6. How does accommodation differ from assimilation?

Accommodation is when you take in new info and change the schema to incorporate the new info. Assimilation taking new info and changing the schema to incorporate the new info.

7. What did Harlow’s experiments with monkeys demonstrate about attachment?

Harlow removed baby monkeys from their biological mothers hours after birth to be raised by two surrogate mothers. The first one was made out of wire and provided food. The second one was made out of cloth and provided nothing. The study found that the monkey went to the wire mother solely for food, preferring to spend time with the cloth mother. Based on these findings, Harry Harlow concluded that affection was the primary force behind the need for closeness.

8. Briefly explain Erikson's 8 stages of Psychosocial development.

9. Explain the three stages of Kohlbergs’ Moral Development.

The stages are pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Preconventional is from ages 3 to 7 and is moral reasoning based on reward and punishment. Conventional is from ages 8 to 13, and it is moral reasoning based on external ethics. Post-conventional is into adulthood, and it is moral reasoning based on personal ethics. 

conventional is based on social rules

10. According to the source material, what is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex is the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. Gender is the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.

Learning

1. What is classical conditioning? Give an example that demonstrates how a neutral stimulus can become associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning is a form of passive learning, introduced by Ivan Pavlov through his study of dog digestion. In order to classically condition an organism, an unconditional relationship must be present, consisting of an unconditional stimulus [something that elicits a natural, reflexive response] and an unconditioned response [response to the unconditional stimulus]. A neutral stimulus stimulus is something that elicits no response on its own. After presenting the neutral stimulus with the unconditional stimulus multiple times, acquisition [the process by which the body links together the neutral stimulus w/h the unconditional stimulus] occurs. The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, and the unconditioned response becomes the conditioned response. Learning has occurred when the previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.

2. How does acquisition differ from extinction? How can spontaneous recovery be demonstrated in classical conditioning?

Acquisition is the process by which the body links together the neutral stimulus w/h the unconditional stimulus, whereas extinction is the process by which the relationship is lost. Spontaneous recovery is a phenomenon when after extinction, the conditioned response will occasionally and randomly appear after the conditioned stimulus is presented.

3. Describe operant conditioning, and explain why the learner in operant conditioning is not considered passive. Give an example that illustrates this idea.

Operant conditioning is not passive as it is based on the learner’s response to consequences. These consequences are what shape the learner’s behavior. Reinforcers increase behavior, punishment decreases behavior, anything negative is meant to remove a variable, and anything positive is meant to add a variable.

4. What are the different types of reinforcement? Explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement and give examples of each.

Positive reinforcement is the addition of something to increase behavior. For example, Sam is given ice cream when she gets an A+ on a test. Negative reinforcement is the removal of something to decrease behavior. There are two types of negative reinforcement: escape learning and avoidance learning. Escape learning is when someone does something to get rid of punishment. For example, you cannot get your phone back until the desired behavior is done. Avoidance learning is when the learner does something to avoid punishment. For example, if the desired behavior is not completed, your phone will be taken.

5. Explain how the Premack Principle applies to reinforcement. Illustrate your response by giving a concrete example.

The Premack Principle talks about taking into consideration the types of reinforcers used, making sure that the reinforcer wanted or at least more preferable than the targeted behavior. For example, if you tell someone that you will take them to a concert if they clean their room, you have to make sure to take them to see an artist they actually like. 

6. What is a token economy, and in what contexts might it be useful? Why is it sometimes more effective than single reinforcers?

A token economy is rewarding people with a token every time a desired behavior is performed. These tokens are then traded in for prizes or reinforcers. They are better than single reinforcers because they are earned, similarly to money, so they are worth more.  

7. How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules differ? What does partial reinforcement have that makes it more resistant to extinction than continuous?

Continuous reinforcement reinforces the behavior everytime the behavior is exhibited. It is usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association. Acquisition comes really fast, but so does extinction. Partial reinforcement reinforces the behavior only some of the times it is exhibited. Acquisition comes more slowly, but is more resistant to extinction. Partial reinforcement creates long lasting connections through the reinforcement schedules. 

8. What is latent learning, and how does it challenge the traditional understanding of learning? Describe how Tolman and Honzik demonstrated this type of learning using rats.

Latent learning is unconscious, hidden learning. It challenges the traditional understanding of learning because it can sometimes be unpresent. Tolmn demonstrated this type of learning through a study with rats. There were two groups of rats: one with food at the end of the maze and one with no food at the end of the maze. The group with the food went through the maze with ease because they had motivation to finish, and the group without food could not get out because they had no incentive. Once the group with no food had food placed at the end of the maze, they got out with ease because they had motivation. Both groups of rats had the ability to get out; the other group just needed incentive. 

9. What is the overjustification effect? How does it relate to the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation?

The overjustification effect occurs when an expected external incentive, such as money or prizes, decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Extrinsic motivators include money and prizes, and too much of them can destroy intrinsic motivation, as demonstrated by the overjustification effect.

10. How does learned helplessness develop? Give a specific example of how a person might demonstrate learned helplessness after experiencing uncontrollable bad events.

Learned helplessness is the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person acquires when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. Tragic events can wreck a person’s mental health, and people might feel out of control after they occur. If they could not control the tragic event, they might feel like they cannot control anything else in their life.