Gender and Society Reviewer

Fundamental Definitions of Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the physiological characteristics related to reproduction. It is considered congenital, meaning it is present at birth, and it is unchanging. In contrast, Gender refers to the social and cultural roles, behaviors, and identities that are learned by people. Gender is a learned behavior that changes over time and varies within and across different cultures. It is crucial to understand that sex does not correspond to gender; according to scientists, psychologists, and sociologists, one's gender is not determined by their biological sex.

Femininity describes behaviors commonly associated with females that may not actually be tied to a woman's biological sex. Similarly, Masculinity is not tied to an individual's gonads or biological functions. Instead, masculinity is based on gender and the specific beliefs of a society.

Understanding Gender Stereotypes

Sex Stereotypes are generalized views of the traits that men and women should possess, focusing particularly on their physical and emotional roles. These traits are often unrelated to the roles individuals actually perform. Sexual Stereotypes involve assumptions about a person's sexuality that reinforce dominant views, such as the belief that everyone is attracted only to the opposite sex.

Sex-role Stereotypes are the specific roles, traits, and responsibilities assigned to men and women based entirely on the sex they were assigned at birth. Compounded Stereotypes occur when assumptions about groups within a gender are further influenced by other aspects of identity, including age, sexual orientation, religion, socioeconomic status, or disability.

SOGIE and LGBTQA Identities

SOGIE is an acronym that stands for Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Gender Expression. Sexual Orientation refers to the person to whom an individual is attracted, encompassing both romantic and sexual feelings. Gender Identity is a person's deeply felt sense of their own gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth. Gender Expression refers to how individuals outwardly express their gender identity through appearance, behavior, mannerisms, clothing, hairstyle, speech, and body language.

Within the LGBTQA community, various identities are defined: a Lesbian is a woman attracted to other women; Gay refers to men who are attracted to other men; Bisexual refers to a person attracted to both genders; Transgender describes a person whose assigned sex at birth does not represent their gender identity; Queer refers to sexual or gender identities that do not correspond to established ideas of sexuality and gender, particularly heterosexual norms; and Asexual refers to a person who does not experience sexual attraction toward individuals of any gender.

Gender Equality, Equity, and Rights

Gender Equality is the equal enjoyment of human rights, opportunities, resources, and benefits by women and men without discrimination. It is a fundamental human right. Gender Equity refers to the justice and fairness in the treatment of women and men, which sometimes requires specific measures to compensate for historical and social disadvantages.

Women's Rights are the specific entitlements women have simply because they are human, based on international human rights documents such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

In discussing gender identity, a distinction is made between Transgender and Transsexual individuals. Transgender refers to people who live permanently in their preferred gender without necessarily undergoing medical interventions. Transsexual refers to people who identify with the gender opposite their assigned sex at birth and may intend to undergo, are currently undergoing, or have already undergone gender reassignment treatment, which may or may not include hormone therapy or surgery.

Measurement and Patterns of Gender Inequality

The Gender Gap is the measurable difference between women and men in terms of participation, access to resources, rights, power, influence, remuneration, and benefits. Patterns of Gender Inequalities manifest in several areas. The Difference in Legal Status and Protection refers to variations in laws and rights between men and women. Inequalities in Political Power and Representation involve unequal participation in leadership and politics. Inequalities in Economic Participation refer to differences in employment, wages, and income. Educational Attainment differences regard access to and completion of education. Finally, Sexual and Domestic Violence refers to abuse or harm within the home or relationships, which disproportionately affects women.

Historical Perspectives on Gender and Society

Gender and Society Across Time refers to the historical development of how society understands gender and sexuality. In the earliest periods, some cultures held the Divine Feminine Concept, which was the belief in the sacredness of women due to their ability to conceive children. These were often Egalitarian Societies where men and women enjoyed equitable power and social status.

The discovery of paternity—the father's role in reproduction—shifted societal views during the Agricultural Era. This period saw the rise of the Productive Sphere, the world of public work where men were preferred, and the Reproductive Sphere, the world of the home, child-rearing, and home management, which became associated with women. Gender Disparity intensified during the Industrial Era.

The Rise of Patriarchy and Historical Views

Patriarchy is a social system based on the control and oppression of women, where men hold power in political, legal, economic, and social spheres. The term originates from the Greek word "Patriarches," meaning "the rule of the father." In a Patrilineal Society, only men inherit property and the family name. The philosopher Friedrich Engels argued that patriarchy developed when people began owning Private Property instead of living communally. This shift was facilitated by Product Surplus from agriculture and animal domestication.

Historical views varied by region. In Greece, philosophers like Aristotle and Plato viewed women as the inferior sex meant to obey husbands and manage the household. Conversely, in Egypt, the historian Herodotus noted that women had a higher social status, as they could inherit property and participate in trade. In China, Confucianism established strict rules through the Three Obediences (obeying father, husband, and son) and the Four Virtues (industry, appearance, speech, and behavior).

Gender Biases and the Feminist Movement

Gender Biases are unfair beliefs and practices favoring one gender. These include Sexism (prejudice or discrimination based on sex), the Gender Pay Gap (men earning more for work), and Underrepresentation of women in leadership roles. Women's Empowerment is the process of challenging patriarchy to promote equality.

The Women's Liberation Movement challenged oppressive structures. Feminism is the movement seeking equality while challenging discrimination. First Wave Feminism (19th-early 20th century) fought for suffrage and property rights. Second Wave Feminism (1960s-1980s) addressed domestic violence, reproductive rights, and wage inequality. Third Wave Feminism began in the 1990s, and Fourth Wave Feminism began in 2012.

Key feminist figures include Simone de Beauvoir, who wrote "The Second Sex" (1949); Betty Friedan, author of "The Feminine Mystique" (1963); Kate Millett, author of "Sexual Politics" (1969); and Germaine Greer, author of "The Female Eunuch" (1970). European efforts included the movement Le Mouvement de Libération des Femmes. A United Nations Report notes significant global disparities, stating that women perform 66% of the world's work and produce 50% of the world's food, yet receive only 10% of the income and own 1% of the property.

Gender and Sexuality as a Subject of Inquiry

Gender Studies is an area of knowledge dedicated to analyzing society to recognize power relations in everyday things. A Gender Role (or Sex Role) consists of behaviors and attitudes considered appropriate within a culture, specifically masculinity and femininity. Diversity involves the presence of different backgrounds to foster productive communities, while Inclusion is the practice of providing equal access to resources.

Research in this field follows a Research Process: identifying problems, making hypotheses, gathering data, and drawing conclusions. Approaches include Qualitative Research, which focuses on meaning and interpretations. Qualitative methods include Phenomenology (understanding lived experiences through interviews), Hermeneutics (understanding the meaning of texts and art), and Ethnography/Ethnomethodology (immersing in a community to observe practices).

Quantitative Research focuses on describing populations and making generalizations. Methods include the Survey (collecting info from a sample) and the Experiment (comparing experimental groups with control groups).

Ethics in Gender and Sexuality Research

Ethics are a prerequisite for any properly conducted study. Ethical Principles ensure participants are treated fairly. Informed Consent requires that participants are aware of the study's purpose before agreeing. Confidentiality and Anonymity ensure that identities are not revealed. Non-maleficence is the principle of doing no harm, whereas Beneficence ensures the study is beneficial and worth implementing. Distributive Justice ensures the fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of research.