Absolutism

Definition:
- “Absolutism” refers to a concept of political authority, coined by historians, to describe a transformation in European monarchies during the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries).
- The term was not used by the monarchs themselves; rather, they understood they were implementing different governance strategies compared to their predecessors.
Core Principles:
- Monarchical Power: The monarch (king or queen) held (theoretically) absolute political power within the kingdom.
- Responsibility to Subjects: Every action taken by the monarch should aim at preserving and ensuring the rights and privileges of subjects, extending even to peasants.
Contrast with Medieval Monarchy:
- In previous eras (medieval and Renaissance), the king held a position of a first among equals, often subordinate to the influence of powerful nobles.
- Nobles had rights to raise and maintain armies independently of the monarch, leading to a fragmented political structure.

Emergence of Absolutism:
- Beginning in the early 17th century, particularly in France, a stronger and centralized monarchy emerged, with the king acquiring more power than any single noble.
- Strengthening of royal bureaucracies diminished noble influence.
- Appointment of non-noble officials to powerful positions became commonplace.
- Increased army sizes led to an escalation in military and colonial power, exemplified by the reign of Louis XIV, known as the "Sun King."

Transformation of the French State:
- Under Louis XIII (his reign began in 1610), significant changes initiated towards absolute monarchy.
- Regency of Marie de Medici: After Louis XIII's father, Henry IV, was assassinated, his mother served as regent until Louis matured.
- Cardinal Armand de Richelieu: Became chief minister in 1628 and was crucial in implementing measures that led to absolutism.
Richelieu's Contributions:
- Suppression of Nobility: Actively suppressed noble revolts.
- Intendants: Created a system whereby royal governors, typically from mercantile classes, oversaw taxation, administration, and military recruitment, without loyalty to local lords.
- Tax Reforms: Aimed at enhancing taxation efficiency, abolished some regional assemblies that regulated taxation; significantly increased revenues from the taille (land tax).

Focus on State Power Over Religious Duties:
- Richelieu was a cardinal yet prioritized French crown interests over his ecclesiastical role.
- Support in Wars: Authorized French support for Protestant forces against Habsburgs in the Thirty Years’ War.
- This support illustrates the state’s interests often outweighed confessional alignments.

Ascension to Power:
- Louis XIV assumed full power in 1661 after his mother served as regent and followed the death of his advisor, Mazarin.
The Fronde:
- A series of noble-led uprisings against royal authority occurred during Louis XIV’s early reign, emphasizing resistance to increased royal power.
- Resulted in a determination on Louis' part to subdue noble influences.
Personal Rule:
- Marketing of Monarchy: Cultivated an image of supremity, referred to as the “Sun King,” likening himself to Apollo.
- Generated a cultural legacy through immense patronage of the arts, architecture, and performances, including grand productions at Versailles.

Construction & Function:
- Originally a hunting lodge expanded to a massive palace to symbolize power and control.
- Features included 1,400 fountains and extensive gardens occupying approximately 2,000 acres.
Social Control:
- High-ranking nobles were required to reside at Versailles, creating a competitive courtly environment where favors were essential for maintaining power.
- Elaborate morning rituals surrounding the king ensured only favored nobles could directly influence the monarch.

Funding the Court:
- Approximately 60% of royal revenue was allocated to maintain Versailles during construction.
- A class divide persisted, with many nobles spending significant income on maintaining appearances at court.
- Jean Baptiste Colbert:
- Expanded royal revenues through reformed tax collection, tariffs, and growing overseas commerce, serving as a notable non-noble bureaucrat overseeing state finances.

Religious Persecution:
- Louis XIV persecuted religious minorities, notably the Huguenots, leading to revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, which prompted mass exodus of skilled labor.
Militarization and Wars:
- Louis engaged France in constant military conflict (1680 – 1715), accumulating national debt without adequate funds, eventually weakening the state financially.

Prussia:
- Friedrich Wilhelm's Compromise: Established enduring serfdom while centralizing power through taxes and military dependence, maintaining noble privileges.
- Frederick Wilhelm I: Created a highly militarized society, expanding the army substantially while establishing conscription systems.
Austria:
- The Habsburg policy faced opposition from different ethnic groups, enforcing strict peasant duties in some areas to consolidate power.

General Trends:
- Absolutist monarchies emerged across Europe, often maintaining noble privileges while expanding state power.
- Peasant freedoms diminished; serfdom became more rigid in Eastern Europe, with heightened taxes and labor obligations.
Statistical Transformations:
- The size of royal governments expanded significantly (around 400% increase) from the 16th to the 17th centuries. Standing militaries also grew to approximately 150,000 troops, markedly more organized than previous systems.

Resistance to Absolutism:
- The Parliament in England resisted the broader trend towards absolutism, culminating in the English Civil War and eventual constitutional monarchy post-Glorious Revolution in 1688, marking a notable divergence in political history.
Political Developments:
- Elizabeth I's reign set the stage for parliamentary influence, yet resulted in heightened tensions with her succession by the Stuart line and their absolutist tendencies.

Legacy:
- Absolutism, while expansive across Europe, left various legacies including increased central authority, institutionalized serfdom, and the transformation of governance structures destined to evolve into modern states.
- The English model of constitutional monarchy contrasted sharply against continental absolutism, shaping political discourse through debates over law and representation that inspired modern democratic concepts.