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PSY 423- Final Exam Study Guide
Psy 423
Study Guide, Exam 3 Fall 2024
Lecture Material
Temperament
What is Temperament?
ÿ Temperament- biologically influenced individual differences in emotion-related and other behaviors
o Show consistency across situations (within the same child)
§ Must demonstrate genetic/biological influence to be a dimension of temperament
· Can also be impacted by environment
o Often using twin studies
o Show some degree of stability over time (not perfect, more specific information to follow)
§ Individual differences- differences in kids of the same age
· “baby personality”- building blocks of adult personality
o Adult personality is more complex
(Some) Specific Temperament Dimensions – all look like a bell curve
ÿ Fearful distress/Behavior inhibition- the extent to which a child shows negative emotion in response to novelty (people/situation)
ÿ Irritable distress/Distress to limits/Anger- the extent to which a child shows negative emotion when their goals are blocked
ÿ Surgency: combination of 3 temperament dimensions
o Includes level of positive emotionality/positive affectivity, activity level (physical activity), and impulsivity levels (planning/controlling behavior)
o Babies high in surgency are high in all 3
ÿ Effortful control
o Includes level of attentional (attention span and how well kids can shift attention when required) and behavioral control
o High effortful control: good focus, good attention shift, and good planning
Measurement of Temperament – mostly focused on young kids, reported by parents
ÿ Questionnaires
o Typically completed by parents, child care providers, or teachers
§ Mary Rothbarts’ temperaments scales, really long; measured differently by age
o Advantages:
§ Parents observe children’s behaviors in a variety of situations and over time (cannot in a lab setting)
§ Can assess many temperament dimensions at the same time
§ Efficient (cost, time low)
o Disadvantages:
§ Bias (e.g., social desirability effects)
ÿ Structured observation
o Ex’s: laboratory/controlled tasks
o Fearful distress/behavioral inhibition—Expose infant/child to unfamiliar, ambiguous stimulus (e.g., remote-controlled spider or robot) or to an unfamiliar person)
o Irritable distress/Anger—Prevent infant/child’s access to something they want, such as a toy or treat they want
o Effortful control—put children in situations where behavioral and/or attentional control is required
§ Delay of gratification tasks
§ Games such as Simon Says
o Advantages:
§ Greater objectivity
§ Greater control over conditions of observation
o Disadvantages:
§ Less efficient (cost, time, and compensation)
§ Limited range of contexts in which children’s behavior is observed
§ More difficult to study multiple temperament dimensions simultaneously
Stability of Temperament
ÿ Measures of temperament obtained neonatally or in the first several months of life are only weakly or inconsistently associated with later measures of those dimensions
ÿ Greater short-term stability in some temperament dimensions after the first year (and sometimes earlier)
o More stability with age; Ex: fearful distress, irritable distress, activity level
ÿ Research generally indicates greater long-term in temperament dimensions beginning around age 3 (and later)
o Also, more evidence for long-term associations between temperament measured at 3 or later and other aspects of children’s development/adjustment
Temperament and Adjustment
ÿ “Difficult” temperament may include:
o Higher Fearfulness/Behavioral Inhibition: frequent, intense, long-lasting negative emotion to new stimuli
o Higher Irritable Distress/Distress to Limits/Anger: highly upset when they can’t get what they want
o Higher Surgency: good positive emotion, but high levels of activity and impulsivity; difficulty regulating emotion
o Lower effortful control: low attention and focus and shift control; low behavioral control (impulsive)
ÿ “Difficult” temperaments in early childhood is positively (although modestly) correlated with adjustment problems later in development
o So only some children with “difficult” temperament characteristics show later adjustment problems. Why?
ÿ Goodness-of-Fit
o Degree to which a child’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of their social environment
§ Poor goodness-of-fit
· Ex: Child who is easily angered and parents who are hostile or unsupportive and use harsh discipline
§ Good goodness-of-fit
· Ex: Child who is easily angered and parents who are warm and supportive and use firm (but not harsh) discipline
§ Poor goodness-of-fit is related to an increased risk of adjustment problems
· Some parents shield their children from what they dislike which can make them more closed off and without coping skills/the idea it can be rewarding
Attachment
Definitions:
ÿ Attachment: An enduring emotional tie that unites one person to another, over time and across space (M. Ainsworth, John Bowlby)
ÿ Attachment Behaviors: Behaviors that function to bring the infant/child physically closer to the caregiver
o Ex’s: crying, following, clinging
ÿ Attachments don’t disappear when there’s space between child and parent
o Separation: anxiety, depression (Bowlby’s study)
Normative Development of Attachment
ÿ Ethological Attachment Theory (J. Bowlby) – normative attachment as an EVOLUTIONARY mechanism
o Attachment behavior evolved because it was adaptive for survival:
§ Kept infants physically close to caregivers and away from dangers, especially predators (in the environment in which humans evolved)
· Increased the chances of infant survival and later reproductive successes
§ Ethological- study of animals in their habitats
· Interested in both WHY infants develop normative attachment behaviors? Individual Differences
o Evidence (for Ethological Attachment Theory):
§ In non-human species living in the wild, animals that stray from a group are much more vulnerable to attack
· Our evolutionary ancestors in hunter/gathering times
§ Attachment behavior across species:
· Occurs more frequently in those most vulnerable to predators (e.g., the young) and also pregnant/sick members
· Increases in frightening situations
· All normally developing infants should form attachments with their caregivers à doesn’t account for non-normative development
Individual Differences in Attachment Security
The quality (security) of attachment is not the same for all children
ÿ Potential Importance- Bowlby Says:
o Why are individual differences in parent-child attachment important?
§ First relationship that infants experience:
· May serve as a model for other relationships
· May affect the development of self-concept
§ Feelings of worth ^^
ÿ Measurement
o Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: assesses differences in individual security/insecurity in attachments (most common measure to age 2)
§ 12-24 months- typically used between ages 1 and 2
§ Structured Observation- laboratory setting
§ Stranger involved: parent leaves the room, stranger to the child enters (separation/stranger anxiety- 2 very common fears in the age group)
§ Intended to elicit stress- to promote attachment
· Not meant to be entirely pleasant
· Not effective for older children
§ Classification of Security: Based on kid’s behavior during attachment episodes
o Most commonly used measure for infants/toddlers in the Strange Situation:
§ Parent and infant in laboratory playroom
§ Stranger enters, talks to parent, engages infant
§ Parent leaves (stranger stays)
§ Parent returns (stranger leaves)
§ Parent leaves (baby alone)
§ Stranger returns
§ Parent returns
o Secure (B)
§ Approx. 62-68% of infants in American samples
· The Strange Situation has been used in a variety of cultures
· The majority of children are classified as secure in all of these cultures (cross-cultural)
§ Tendency: may or may not be distressed by separation
§ Rspond positively to parent’s return
· If distressed by separation, easily comforted by parent and able to return to play (parent= secure base)
o Insecure-Avoidant (A)
§ Approx. 15% of infants in American samples
· More cross-cultural variation (more children fit this in some places, less in others (like Germany and Israel)
§ Tendency: usually not distressed by separation from parent
§ Appear indifferent to or avoid the parent during reunion (no clear positive reaction)
o Insecure-Resistant or Ambivalent (C)- Anxious attachment
§ Approx. 9% of infants in American samples
§ Usually distressed by separation
§ Show a combination of angry, resistant behavior and proximity-seeking behavior during reunion with parent
§ Have difficulty being comforted by parent and returning to play
o Insecure-Disorganized (D)
§ Added after Ainsworth’s original publication when researchers saw trends not initially noted of her white, middle class sample
§ Approx. 15% of infants in American samples
§ More common in infants who have been maltreated
§ Behavior appears confused or contradictory
§ May appear frightened of caregiver
§ May appear dazed/disoriented (e.g., staring into space for extended periods of time)
§ Behave with traits of a combination of other categories
§ Proximity seeking while looking away from caregiver
§ Not as clear behavior as C: Angry and proximity secluding
· Hardest to classify, easy publications would say “category A and C combo”
ÿ Potential Influences on Early Attachment Security
o Parental Sensitivity (most influential)
§ According to attachment theory, the major influence on early attachment security is parental behavior (especially sensitivity)
· Sensitivity: Consistent, prompt, and appropriate responses to children’s signals (especially distress signals) –Bowlby theories, Ainsworth supports empirically
o Sensitivity influences the development of children’s IWM
o According to attachment theory, parental sensitivity influences the development of the child’s internal working model
§ Internal Working Model (IWM): Expectations about the nature of relationships (and beliefs about the self)
· Sensitive Care: Children come to expect the caregiver to be available and responsive
· Insensitive Care: Children come to expect the caregiver to be unresponsive/inconsistent or rejecting
o Mary Ainsworth Findings: original study (parental sensitivity)
§ Rejecting parents: kids develop (A) pattern
· When kids wanted attachment comfort, parents disregard those needs/wants
· Inconsistent parents: kids develop (C) pattern
· Sensitive Parents : kids develop (B) pattern
o Bowlby : Sensitivity biggest influence on children’s attachment outcomes. Influences the development of the IWM
§ We all have IWM’s which influence how we experience relationships/our expectations of love
o Ainsworth: found a strong correlation between sensitivity and attachment security (gold standard)
§ BUT: many recent studies have found a less strong correlation
· SOME ARGUE: measures of sensitivity not as valid, less range of context/longevity. However, some have been long-term and still don’t find such strong correlations
· Ainsworth has small sample (26), most of which were B babies, white middle class, stay-at-home mom, etc.
o Evidence:
§ Parental sensitivity is correlated with early attachment security in many studies, but the correlations are not that strong
o Temperament and Attachment Security
§ Some research indicates that infants who show higher levels of negative emotion earlier in infancy (as assessed via parent report or observational measures of temperament) are more likely to be classified as insecure later in infancy
§ In general, most studies do not find direct associations between measures of infant temperament and attachment security
Attachment Security and Later Development
ÿ Empirical evidence (and theoretical explanation)
o Early attachment security is related to:
§ The quality of children’s later relationships with others, including adults and peers
§ Children’s psychological adjustment
· Early attachment security is negatively related to later internalizing behavior problems (e.g., anxiety) and to later externalizing behavior problems (e.g., aggression)
o According to attachment theory, why does early attachment security predict children’s later social and psychological adjustment?
§ Attachment security is an indicator of young children’s internal working models (IWM’s)
o IWM generalizes to new relationships as children get older and tends to be self-perpetuating:
§ Children with secure attachments:
· Expect others to respond positively to them (IWM generalizes)
o Behave in ways that are likely to elicit positive responses from others (IWM tends to be self-perpetuating)
§ Children with insecure attachments:
· Expect others to respond negatively to them (e.g., by ignoring or rejecting them)
o Behave in ways that are likely to elicit negative responses from others (IWM tends to be self-perpetuating)
o Therapy! Awareness of IWM, ability to change/challenge
§ Can change in adulthood, but becomes harder to change the older we get
§ Con- all correlational data à cannot manipulate parental behavior (association, not causational)
· 3rd variable problem
Gender Development
Gender Differences
ÿ There are documented gender differences between males and females
o Ex’s: toy/play preferences, physical aggression, verbal skills, spatial skills
ÿ BUT:
o Not very many documented differences
§ Males and females are similar with respect to most characteristics and behaviors
§ Even documented gender differences tend to be relatively small in size
Gender Development
ÿ Development of Gender Awareness
o Between 2 and 3 years, children generally identify themselves (and others) in terms of gender
ÿ Development of Stereotype Knowledge
o By 2 years of age, children have some knowledge of gender stereotypes
o Over the preschool and early elementary school years, learn more about the characteristics and behaviors frequently associated with gender (chores, toys, etc.)
o Preschoolers’ knowledge of gender stereotypes tends to be rigid
§ Often do not that characteristics and behaviors associated with gender do not determine gender
· May be one reason they tend to treat gender stereotypes as “rules”
· Always think characters behave stereotypically
o By elementary school, children’s knowledge of gender stereotypes is more flexible
§ Realize that characteristics and behaviors associated with gender do not determine gender
· Understand that stereotypes are not “rules”
· Ex- stories about gender-typed or crossgender-typed stories; asked to predict what else a character might like
ÿ Development of Gender-typed Behavior
o By about 2 years of age, many children show gender-typed toy preferences
o Gender-typed toy preferences become stronger during the preschool years for most children
o Gender segregation develops during the preschool years (3-5)
§ Tendency to associate with same-gender peers
· Increases steadily until about age 6 and then remains stable throughout childhood (until puberty)
o Begins by 3 and increases until 6, well established until breakdown at puberty onset
o Largely initiated by kids themselves, as opposed to kids encouraging it; seen across countries
§ Crosscultural: young kids look for others who like what they like (biological homily)
o Influenced by availability (more prevalent in school than neighborhoods)
o In elementary school, boys’ and girls’ peer groups have somewhat different “norms”
§ Boys’ groups tend to emphasize norms of dominance, self-reliance, hiding vulnerability
§ Girls’ groups tend to emphasize norms of intimacy and collaborations
o By age 5 to 7 years, children begin to tease peers who “violate” gender-role norms, including those who interact with members of another gender
§ Girls’ aggression tends to be more relational, boys’ have more physical, verbal, and relational aggression
o Adolescents may show increased gender-role intensification or increased gender-role flexibility
§ Gender-role intensification: increased concern with traditional gender roles
§ Gender-role flexibility: pursuit of a more flexible range of interests
· More negative reaction when men participate in cross-gender-type behavior
o Adolescents engage in more cross-gender interactions and friendships than do younger children (in addition to romantic relationships)
Potential Biological Influences on Gender-typed Behavior
ÿ Organizing influences:
o Construct that describes the potential effect of sex-linked hormones on brain development prenatally or postnatally
ÿ Androgens: a class of hormones that typically occur at higher levels in the males than in females
o Ex: testosterone
ÿ Between-subject experimental designs with pregnant animals or neonates
o Injecting pregnant animals with androgens, the control pregnant groups without
§ For neonates à inject experimental group with androgens
· Look specifically at females
ÿ May have effects on brain development
ÿ Evidence Consistent with Organizing Influences
o Experimental research with non-human species indicates that prenatal or neonatal exposure to androgens:
§ Increases “rough and tumble” play in non-human primates and rodents
§ Increases aggression, activity level, and the ability to learn complex mazes in rodents
o Limitations? Not clear to what extent findings from other species are going to generalize
o Strengths?
§ Experimental gets ride of 3rd variables
§ Can make cause/effect claims/statements à “increases in androgens CAUSE . . .”
§ Random assignment
ÿ Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
o Moving to humans now
§ Correlations; studying humans who have abnormal exposure to hormones
· Means there can always be 3rd variables
o Genetic disorder in which a fetus produces atypically high levels of androgens during the prenatal period
§ Most common form of hormonal disorder
§ Inability to produce cortisol, overproduction of androgens
· 1 in 5,000 to 1 in 30,000 children in US born with this
§ Likely to affect way external genitalia manifest/are seen in women
· Boys might go into precocious puberty à not as frequent as female manifestations
· Can maybe impact heart, kidneys, physical issues
§ Important to consider impacts of other variables with androgens and social interactions/preferences/interpretations
o Compared to girls without CAH, girls with CAH are more likely to:
§ Prefer physically active play, such as rough-and-tumble play, to less active play
§ Show preferences for male-typed toys
§ Show better spatial skills (in some studies)
§ Tremendous variability in these kids, in both groups
Potential Environmental Influences on Gender-typed Behavior
ÿ Social Learning (or Social Cognitive) Theory (Bussey & Bandura)
o Learning about gender, including the acquisition of gender-typed behavior, occurs through:
§ Observational learning
· Learning through observing the consequences others experiences as a result of their behavior
· Kids are more likely to see kids experience positive reinforcement when doing gender-typed behavior
§ Enactive experience
· Learning through experiencing the consequences of one’s own behavior
§ Tuition
· Learning through the direct teaching of gender-typed behavior or skills
o Ex: father showing son how to throw a baseball; mother showing daughter how to change a baby’s diaper
§ Ultimately, children’s motivation to engage in gender-typed behaviors will depend on the consequences associated with these behaviors
· In general, children are likely to experience more positive consequences for engaging in gender-typed behavior, more negative consequences for engaging in cross-gender-typed behaviors
· Consequences may be indirect (a result of observational learning) or direct (a result of enactive experience)
o Ex’s: mother praises daughter for helping to prepare dinner (direct positive consequence); boy observes another boy getting teased for playing with a doll (indirect negative consequence)
ÿ Evidence Consistent with Social Learning Theory
o Parental Behavior
§ Parents are more likely to respond positively when children engage in gender-typed play and more likely to respond negatively when children in cross-gender-typed play
o Parents are likely to assign household chores on the basis of gender
§ Boys: More often assigned chores outside the home and/or chores that involve tools and machines
§ Girls: More often assigned chores inside the home
§ These are examples of tuition
o In contexts involving science, parents are more likely to provide explanations, ask challenging questions, and use technical vocabulary with boys than with girls
§ Associated with better learning, regardless of the subject
§ Mainly, underrepresentation of women in physics type fields, rather than math/bio
o Tenenbaum & Leaper (2003)
§ Coded three types of parental statements during teaching tasks:
· Causal explanations: Explains a cause behind an event
o Ex’s: “The needle fell because the soap reduced the surface tension” (needle task); “if you add a move, he (Dr. Brain) will move there” (computer task)
o How often were parents providing causal explanations, especially with boys vs girls?
§ Conceptual questions: An abstract question about something that is beyond the immediate situation and that typically involves comparison or classification
· Involved 6-8th graders and their parents (hetero couple)
o Observations à videotaped parent-child interactions in their homes, watching them complete scientific tasks (bio, physics, computer technology)
§ 2 visits to watch mom-child interaction and father-child interaction
o Interested in what parents were saying to kids (gendered)
· Ex’s: “Why did Mother Nature make you sensitive to bitter on the tip (of your tongue)?”; “Why did the needle sink?”
§ Scientific vocabulary: Advanced vocabulary pertinent to the domain
· Ex’s: “surface tension”; “carbon dioxide »
· Had teachers give them students’ grades
ÿ Parents’ Beliefs and Children’s Self-Concepts
o For both boys and girls, not clear on what causes what (can’t figure out cause-effect); also 3rd variable possibility
o When mothers believed science was more difficult for their children, their children’s self-efficacy and interest in science was likely to be lower
o When mothers believed their children were more interested in science, their children’s self-efficacy and interest in science was likely to be higher
o When fathers believed science was more difficult for their children, their children’s self-efficacy was likely to be lower
ÿ Parents’ Statements and Children’s Gender
o During the physics task, fathers of sons used more cognitively demanding talk than did fathers of daughters
§ Casual/conceptual explanations
§ No differences in fathers’ cognitively demanding talk to sons and daughters in biology or technology tasks
o No differences in mothers’ cognitively demanding talk to boys and girls in any of the tasks
Potential Cognitive Influences on Gender-typed Behavior
ÿ Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)
o Three Stages
§ Basic Gender Identity:
· Identifies gender of self and others
· Emerges between 2-3 years
§ Gender Stability
· Understands that gender is stable over time
· Emerges between 3 and 4 years
· Kids who are trans are more likely to acknowledge/have a perspective that gender can change
§ Gender Constancy/Consistency
· Understands that gender is invariant across situations
o Understands that changes in superficial characteristics (e.g., clothing, hairstyle) or changes in behavior do not change an individual’s gender
· Emerges between 6-7 years
· Kohlberg: Once children have achieved gender constancy, they are motivated to engage in gender-typed behavior. Problem?
o Kids start showing gender-typed behaviors at 2 years old, WAY earlier than his theory
§ Gender Schema Theory:
· Children construct gender schemas
· Organized mental representations incorporating information about gender
o Include children’s observations and experiences related to gender
o Schemas are dynamic—change as children acquire additional information
· Once children achieve basic gender identity, they are motivated to engage in gender-typed behavior
o Motivated to prefer, pay more attention to, and remember more information about others of their gender
o Not stages, but just comprehension (1st stages)
· Children use gender schemas to guide their behaviors and process information
ÿ Evidence Consistent with Gender Schema Theory
o Martin et al. (1995)
§ Children used gender labels given to toys to guide their behavior (i.e., how much they liked particular toys)
· Ex: if a toy was labeled as a toy that “boys really like,” girls generally reported that they liked it less and that other girls would also like it less than if the same toy was labeled as a toy that “girls really like” (same general pattern for boys)
o True even if the toy was very attractive (magnet stands, animal flipbooks)
§ Study 3 à 2 boxes, 1 with boys on it, 1 with girls on it
· Would pull out toys and say “this is what boys play with”
§ Study 1 à toys very attractive to boys and girls
§ Study 2 à moderately attractive toys
o Children show biases in their memory for information about gender
§ More likely to accurately remember information that is consistent with gender stereotypes
§ More likely to forget or distort information that is inconsistent with gender stereotypes
§ Show kids visual stimuli; consistent with gendered stimuli and cross-gendered stimuli, then test memory on stimuli they’ve seen
Peer Relations
Peer Relations
ÿ Peer Acceptance: Assessment
o Sociometric nominations
§ Typically used within a classroom
§ Children are typically asked to name 3-5 peers they like most and like least
§ Children are categorized into status groups based on the number of positive and negative nominations they receive from peers
o Sociometric Statuses:
§ Popular- Many positive nominations, few negative
§ Rejected- Many negative nominations, few positive
§ Controversial- Many positive and negative nominations
§ Neglected- Few positive or negative nominations
§ Average- Near the mid-range of positive and negative nominations
ÿ Peer Acceptance: Correlates
o Popular:
§ Generally prosocial, skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships, and seen as leaders by peers
§ Less likely to draw unwarranted attention to themselves when entering ongoing playgroups (e.g., do not talk exclusively about themselves; do not disrupt ongoing group activities)
§ Endorse negotiation and compromise as effective strategies for obtaining their goals and maintaining positive relationships with peers
o Rejected:
§ Heterogeneous category
· Two subtypes, but some children who are rejected do not fit into either stereotype
o Aggressive-rejected children
§ Show high levels of physical, verbal, and/or relational aggression
§ Relational aggression: Purpose is to manipulate or disrupt relationships or friendships (e.g., through social exclusion, spreading gossip/rumors)
§ More likely to assume hostile intentions in others when they are faced with negative circumstances, even when the social cues are ambiguous
§ Tend to have motives/goals that are likely to undermine their social relationships
· Ex’s: “getting even,” “defeating” peers
§ Not all aggressive children are rejected by peers
· When aggressive behavior co-occurs with disruptive, hyperactive, inattentive, or immature behavior it is more likely to be associated with rejection by peers
· Aggression appears to become a weaker predictor of peer rejection as children get older, especially among boys
o Withdrawn-rejected children
§ Socially anxious and/or withdrawn
· Approx. 10-20% of rejected children
§ Relations with rejection depend on the form of withdrawal displayed and the age of the child
§ Solitary-passive behavior: Includes solitary exploratory and/or constructive activity in the presence of others
· Not associated with peer rejection in early childhood, but becomes increasingly related to rejection as chil
· dren get older
§ Social reticence: Includes behaviors such as watching others from a distance (without engaging in alternative activities)
· Appears to elicit peer rejection and exclusion from very early through late childhood
o Controversial:
§ Show a combination of positive and negative social behavior
· Ex’s: may engage in aggressive behavior as well as prosocial behavior
§ Some data indicate these children are likely to be perceived as popular
o Neglected:
§ Less sociable, aggressive, and disruptive than other children (including average children)
§ No consistent evidence that neglected children are socially anxious or more withdrawn than “average” children
ÿ Peer Rejection and Later Adjustment
o Peer rejection in childhood predicts externalizing problems in adolescence
§ Ex’s: delinquency, conduct disorder, attention problems, substance abuse
o Peer rejection in childhood also predicts internalizing problems in adolescence
§ Ex’s: low self-esteem, anxiety problems, depressive symptoms
Behavior
ÿ Moral action- behavior in moral, good, socially acceptable ways
o Criteria for defining a “moral” behavior:
§ Behavior must be at least partly internally generated and not solely in response to immediate external pressures
§ Independence from one’s own self-interest
o Behaviors qualifying for aspects of morality:
§ Resistance to temptation- sets up a conflict between some behavior in which the child would like to engage and some sanction or prohibition against the behavior.
· Question to determine morality? Whether the child resists or fails to resist the temptation
§ Prosocial behavior- whether the child will not only avoid bad behavior but also engage in good behavior
· Behavior example: sharing
§ Forbidden toys test
· Toys on shelf kids are forbidden to play with, experimenters see if kids would give in and play with the toys and if so, how quick and how broad the deviation would be
o Measures to gather evidence for behaviors:
§ Naturalistic Observation
· Strengths
o Viewing the natural occurrence of behaviors in the natural setting
o The extent of the observations
· Limitations
o Many behaviors of interest occur infrequently in the natural setting (like prosocial behavior)
o The eliciting conditions for a behavior may vary across children (due to lack of control in naturalistic observation)
§ Way to resolve? Measure conditions for each child and adjust analyses accordingly
o Laboratory elicitation of the behaviors of interest
§ Locus for our observation is some structured lab environment, an environment designed to permit the occurrence and measurement of the particular moral behavior that we are interested in study
· Ex: forbidden toys test
§ Strengths
· Extremely efficient, more controllable
§ Limitations
· Artificiality
o Verbal report/Rating Approach
§ Again, collecting data in natural setting, judgments from human observer
§ Strengths/Advantages
· Provide a scope and depth of info about a child that is unavailable with other methods; scope for conclusions about child can be broader
§ Limitations/Disadvantages
· They are not direct measures of behavior but second-order reports about behavior
o Very susceptible to bias
Emotion
ÿ Definition- internal phenomena
ÿ Ways to measure emotion
o Verbal reports
§ Self-reports from older children and adolescents
§ Basic Empathy scale for adolescents
§ Application to empathy
· Using the Empathy Questionnaire (EmQue)- used for parents of toddlers or preschoolers
· Facial expressions and physiological change- good indicators of empathetic reactions
§ Application to guilt
· Verbal reports common for reporting guilt- Test of Self-Conscious Affect for Adolescents (TOSCA-A)
o Can assess likelihood of various possible reactions following undesirable behavior—responses provide categories of interest (guilt, shame, etc.)
· Additionally, contrived transgressions- experimentally engineered situations in which children are led to think that they have done something wrong
§ Strengths
· Measures are easier to administer and score
· Can sample reactions across broader range
· Show correlational patterns
§ Limitations
· Measure verbal reports about emotions and not emotions directly
o Results from Eisenberg et al. (1988) with young children and emotionally-arousing scenarios
§ Children watching three films and recording their responses
§ Children reported more fear in the response to the first film (thunderstorm) than for the other two; reports of sadness most common for film about dead pet
§ Heart rate change- accelerated in response to first film, decelerated in response to other two
· Heart rate deceleration correlate of attention—suggests true sympathy in feeling other’s sadness
Friendship
ÿ How to determine if children are friends?
o Definition of friendship- a reciprocal relationship
o Can use self-reports from parents and teachers or observations of naturally occurring behavior
o Friendship development with toddlers
§ Momentary state, dependent of availability and recent actions of a play partner
o As they grow and develop, friendship is seen as more enduring, across-time, and long-lasting
§ Qualities seen as important in a friend change with age as well
§ Increasing emphasis on personal qualities of friend and on the compatibility between self and other
o Friendship development in preschool
§ Focus on concrete, external attributes, a friend is someone who shares things and is fun to play with
o Friendship development in adolescence
§ Qualities like loyalty and intimacy have become central to conception of friendship
ÿ Individual differences in friendships
o Differences in quality of friendship affects other aspects and creates more variations in numerous other aspects of development
o Having a supportive friend can mitigate damaging effects of being bullied
ÿ Friendship selection
o Similarity is important
§ General demographic characteristics—same age, same race, and (most strongly) same sex, similar behavior levels as well
ÿ Similar interests, preferred activities, general personality dispositions (Behavioral homophily- behavioral/psychological similarity like described above)
o Children pick friends similar to themselves OR friendship leads to children becoming more similar
ÿ Friendship formation
o How do they become friends?
§ Children who become friends are more successful at establishing a common-ground activity than are children who do not become friends
· Communicate better, are better at resolving conflict, self-disclosure
Peers as Socialization Agents (330-334)
ÿ Evidence for influence of peers
o Findings from measure
§ 1) Peer influence tends to peak, in both an absolute and a relative sense, in mid-adolescence (ages 13 or 14).
§ 2) Children and adolescents vary in how susceptible they are to peers, with some showing a good deal more susceptibility than others.
§ 3) Parents play an important role in their children’s response to peers in 2 ways:
· They influence the peers with whom the child associates
· They influence how susceptible the child is to the effects of peers
§ 4) The relative influence of parents and peers varies across different topics
· Peers tend to be more important for immediate lifestyle choices, but for more long-term and fundamental decisions, parents have the stronger voice.
ÿ Social comparison- the process of comparing oneself to others and drawing conclusions about the self from the comparison.
o Findings from research on social comparison
§ 1) Developmental change: Although even preschoolers are capable of simple forms of social comparison, the tendency to engage in social comparison increases with age
§ 2) Effects: As children develop, their self-evaluations come to be affected more and more not just by absolute information but also by relative information—making self-evaluations more pessimistic and more realistic
