Rathus_PSYCH_7e_PPT_CH07

Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Overview

• Focus on the relationship between thinking processes, language development, and the understanding of intelligence.

Icebreaker Discussion (Page 2)

• Engage in group discussions on:

  • Step-by-step problem-solving processes.

  • The impact of temporarily stepping away from a problem before revisiting it.

Chapter Objectives (Page 3-4)

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

• Define thinking: Understanding its role in problem solving and decision making.

• Explain language nature: Characteristics and significance in communication.

• Describe language development: Notably the "two-year explosion" in language acquisition.

• Discuss intelligence: Its definition and measurement.

• Explore testing controversy: Explore methods and debates regarding intelligence measurement.

• Understand nature vs. nurture: Impact of genetic and environmental factors on intelligence development.

Concepts (Page 6-7)

Definition of Concepts

• Concepts: Mental categories that group objects, events, relations based on common properties.

  • Organized hierarchically (e.g., prototypes, exemplars).

  • Prototype: An idealized version of a category.

  • Exemplar: Actual examples, which can be positive or negative.

  • Overextension: Assigning instances to incorrect categories.

Thinking and Cognition

• Thinking: Involves attention to information, mental representation, reasoning, and decision making.

• Cognition: Refers to mental activities in understanding, processing, and communicating information.

Problem Solving (Page 9-10)

Understanding Problems

• Mental representation: Visualizing problem components meaningfully.

• Background knowledge: Applying relevant information to the problem.

Seven Steps in Problem Solving

1. Understand/define the problem.

2. Set realistic and achievable goals.

3. Generate multiple solutions (brainstorming).

4. Evaluate the pros and cons of potential solutions.

5. Select a promising solution.

6. Implement a plan of action.

7. Evaluate outcomes of the solution.

Generating Multiple Solutions (Page 11-12)

Approaches to Solutions

• Algorithms: Systematic procedures yielding correct solutions when applied correctly.

• Systematic random search: Testing each possible solution based on specified rules.

• Heuristics: Rules of thumb for simplifying and solving problems (e.g., means-end analysis, analogy).

Factors Affecting Problem Solving (Page 13)

• Expertise: Experts use parallel processing versus novices who use serial processing.

• Mental set: Tendency to approach problems using previously successful methods.

• Insight: Sudden realization of a solution.

• Incubation: Taking a break from a problem can lead to insights.

• Functional fixedness: Inability to see an object beyond its usual function.

Heuristics in Decision Making (Page 14)

• Representative heuristic: Judging probabilities based on how samples appear to represent populations.

• Availability heuristic: Estimating event frequency by how easily examples come to mind.

• Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: Relying on initial information as a reference point.

Framing Effect and Reasoning (Page 15)

• Framing: Decisions influenced by the context and wording of information presented.

• Overconfidence: Ignoring the weaknesses of assumptions and focusing on confirming examples.

• Motivated reasoning: Making decisions based on emotions rather than factual evaluation.

Language and Nonhuman Communication (Page 19)

Communication by Nonhumans

• African Grey Parrots: Can mimic and understand words.

• Apes (Chimpanzees): Useful in understanding meaningful language use, taught symbolic communication despite physical limitations.

What Is Language? (Page 20)

Defining Language

• Communication through symbols following grammatical rules.

• Semanticity: Words as symbols for objects/events.

• Creativity: Ability to form original sentences.

• Displacement: Communicating about non-present objects or events.

Language and Culture (Page 21)

Linguistic-relativity Hypothesis

• Proposed by Benjamin Whorf, asserting that language shapes our worldview.

• Criticism: Adults use images and abstract propositions as thought units; infants show intelligence before speech.

Language Development (Page 24-29)

Prelinguistic Vocalizations

• Crying is not language; babbling starts by six months.

• Children typically say first words around 11-13 months but often lack clear pronunciation.

Grammar Development

• Holophrases: Single words expressing complex meanings through gestures.

• Telegraphic speech: Two-word grammatically correct sentences, followed by understanding multiple meanings.

• Overregularization: Misapplication of regular grammar rules illustrates growing understanding.

Learning Theories

• Imitation and reinforcement: Children learn language by mimicking adults.

• Nativist Approach (Chomsky): Language acquisition device (LAD) influences grammar understanding through universal grammar.

Intelligence Overview (Page 32-33)

• Definition: Ability to understand and cope with challenges; correlated with academic and occupational success.

• Primary mental abilities (Thurstone): Include fluency, reasoning, and numerical skills.

Factor Theories of Intelligence (Page 34-35)

• Spearman's Model: Common factor (g) underlies intelligent behaviors with specifics (s).

• Thurstone’s Eight Factors: Includes verbal and numerical abilities, reasoning, and more.

Multiple Intelligences Theory (Page 36)

• Proposed by Howard Gardner, suggesting different types such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial abilities. Differentiates between intelligence and talents.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Page 37)

• Sternberg's Theory: Three types of intelligence:

  1. Analytical: Problem solving and evaluation.

  2. Creative: Inventive and theoretical thinking.

  3. Practical: Application of knowledge to real situations.

Emotional and Social Intelligence (Page 38)

• Proposed by John Mayer, encompassing self-awareness, self-regulation, and interpersonal skills.

Creativity and Intelligence Relationship (Page 39)

• Moderate correlation between intelligence test scores and creativity; understanding the distinction between convergent (single solution) and divergent (multiple solutions) thinking.

Measuring Intelligence (Page 42-44)

Stanford-Binet Scale

• Produces mental age (MA) and intelligence quotient (IQ).

Wechsler Scales

• Separate subtests for verbal and performance IQs; used for comprehensive assessments.

Reliability and Validity (Page 45)

• Both Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales show high reliability and validity in predicting relevant variables.

Intellectual Functioning Differences (Page 46)

• Cultural Bias: Intelligence tests may reflect biases tied to socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds.

• Gender Differences: No overall cognitive differences; females better in verbal tasks, males in visual manipulation tasks.

Genetic Influences on Intelligence (Page 51-53)

• Kinship Studies: Higher IQ similarities in identical twins versus fraternal twins; strong correlations with biological parents.

• Heritability: Indicates 40-60% of IQ variation can be attributed to genetics.

Environmental Influences (Page 55-56)

• Home environment and parenting styles significantly affect IQ.

• Flynn Effect: Increase in IQ scores over time due to socio-cultural changes and narrowing educational gaps.

Chapter Summary (Page 59)

• Understanding thinking as a planned activity to change the world using language.

• Language development starts with prelinguistic vocalizations.

• Various intelligence theories help comprehend intelligence measurement influences from both genetics and environment.