APES 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.3,c5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16 notes and test review flashcards

Welcome and Agenda

• Welcome message dated November 19 (A) / 20 (B)

• Required materials for the session:

  • 4.1 Plate Tectonics & 4.2 Soil Notes handout (provided last class)

  • Headphones

  • Soil Lab handout

• Today's agenda includes the following:

  1. Set up soil lab to run over Thanksgiving.

  2. Independent Lesson & Notes on Topic 4.1 Plate Tectonics - Read, Watch, Take Notes.

  3. Conduct test corrections, if eligible and needed, for Unit 3.

Soil Lab Setup

1. Read AP Classroom Lab 7: Physical & Chemical Properties of Soil. Answer the questions individually on lined paper. Complete the following sections:

   • Overview & Purpose

   • Pre-Lab Activity

   • Pre-Lab Questions

   • Getting Started

   • Procedure up to Part 1 (skip step 3 - detergent)

2. After completing necessary readings, perform Part III, Day 1 (skip step 3: detergent).

3. After lab setup, clean up your station and work independently on Lesson 4.1.

4. Lesson and Notes are available in Schoology, which includes multiple short videos; make sure to use headphones while engaging with the content.

Unit 4: Earth Systems & Resources

• Enduring Understanding: Earth’s systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.

Overview of Unit 4 Instruction

• Note that Unit 4 will cover multiple sub-units where specific topics align better with other content. Current focus is on 4.1-4.3.

• Preserve all handouts received for future reference.

Learning Intentions for Topic 4.1 - Plate Tectonics

• Objective: Learn about the processes that occur at plate boundaries.

• Success Criteria: Ability to describe geological changes and events that occur at:

  • Convergent plate boundaries

  • Divergent plate boundaries

  • Transform plate boundaries

Essential Knowledge About Plate Boundaries

• ERT-4.A.1: Convergent boundaries can result in the creation of mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

• ERT-4.A.2: Divergent boundaries can result in seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

• ERT-4.A.3: Transform boundaries can result in earthquakes.

• ERT-4.A.4: Maps displaying the global distribution of plate boundaries can identify the locations of volcanoes, island arcs, earthquakes, hot spots, and faults.

• ERT-4.A.5: An earthquake occurs when accumulated stress overcomes a locked fault, releasing the stored energy.

Instructional Methodology

• Recommended to go through the lesson in SLIDESHOW mode to experience the full presentation effect.

• Important to take notes, especially for students who did not take Earth Science.

Earth's Structure

• Watch a video discussing Earth's internal structure:

  • Lithosphere

  • Lower Mantle

  • Outer Core

• *Earth's Internal Structure Details:

  • Crust: 0-100 km thick

  • Upper Mantle

  • Lower Mantle

  • Outer Core (liquid)

  • Inner Core (solid Nickel and Iron)

• Detailed Layers of the Earth:

  • Crust:** 0-100 km thick**

  • Asthenosphere: layer beneath the lithosphere allowing movement.

  • Lithosphere: includes the uppermost solid mantle and the crust (tectonic plates).

  • Inner Core: Solid layer at 5100 km deep composed mainly of iron and nickel.

Density and Interaction of Plates

• Different densities of plates lead to various formations:

  • Continental Crust: Lower density (felsic)

  • Oceanic Crust: Higher density (mafic)

• The Asthenosphere allows for the movement of tectonic plates due to its weak nature, facilitating the interactions between different plates.

Heat Generation within the Earth

• Radioactive elements release heat from the mantle, creating a magma sea that drives the movement of tectonic plates (Lithosphere).

Study of Plate Boundaries

• An interactive component involves joining Carlos Jaramillo on an archaeological dig in Panama, highlighting the meeting place of North and South American plates.

• This segment emphasizes the role of plate tectonics in Earth's history, covering:

  • Definition of plates

  • Mechanics of plate movement

  • Consequences of plate interactions

Fossil Evidence of Plate Movement

• Notable fossils of similar species found on different continents suggest historical connections:

  • Cynognathus fossils (found in North America and South America)

  • Glossopteris fossils (found across South America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia)

  • Lystrosaurus fossils (similar distribution)

  • Mesosaurus fossils (found in South America and Africa)

Concept of Continental Drift

• Historical supercontinent Gondwana included South America, Africa, and other southern continents.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

• Concept Overview: Earth's crust is divided into large pieces known as plates that move slowly over time.

• Plate movement results in:

  • Geological formations such as mountains, trenches, and volcanoes.

  • Geological events such as earthquakes.

Plate Movement Mechanism

• Plates move as a result of convection cycles within the mantle adapted for plate tectonics.

Interactive Learning and Observation

• Students are encouraged to interact with simulations and videos that teach about tectonic plate movements and formations (https://pbslm-contrib.s3.amazonaws.com/WGBH/conv16/conv16-int-mmes/index.html).

Types of Plate Boundaries

• Divergent Boundaries: Formation of mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, sea floor spreading, and rift valleys on land.

• Convergent Boundaries: Lead to the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and trenches.

• Transform Boundaries: Characterized by frequent earthquakes due to stress overcoming locked faults. The San Andreas Fault in California is a well-known example.

Summary and Implications of Plate Boundaries

• Identify the type of plate under which we live and the plates we are converging with or moving away from.

Prediction Tools and Geological Activity

• Plate Tectonic Map: Used for predicting potential geological events such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and new islands forming, particularly in the 'Ring of Fire' which is correlated with active tectonic and volcanic activity around the Pacific Plate.

Specific Geological Zones

• The Ring of Fire: An area characterized by volcanic activity due to subduction zones, where the Pacific Plate subducts beneath continental plates leading to volcanic formations.

Transform Faults

• These faults are locations of earthquake activity due to friction and built-up pressure as tectonic plates shift. The San Andreas Fault serves as a prominent example.

Hotspots and Magma Activity

• Hotspots: Areas of intense volcanic activity where magma rises through the lithosphere, resulting in island formation, such as in Hawaii and Iceland.

Math Practice Problem

• Problem: Determine the duration for two cities on different tectonic plates (Los Angeles and San Francisco) to be situated adjacent, given:

  • Distance between the cities: 630 km (380 miles)

  • Plate under Los Angeles moves northward at: 36 mm per year.

• **Setup for solution:

  • 630 km = 630,000 m = 630,000,000 mm

  • Time required = \frac{630,000,000 ext{ mm}}{36 ext{ mm/year}} = 17,500,000 ext{ years}.

Reflective Questions and Learning Goals

• Able to:

  • Describe the processes and formations at convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.

  • Explain how a tectonic map allows predictions for volcanic, earthquake, and fault activity.

  • Discuss the formation mechanism of earthquakes.

• Reminder to engage with all AP classroom videos for Topic 4.1 and incorporate additional notes while reading and viewing these resources.

Welcome and Materials Needed

• Date: November 19 (A) / 20 (B)

• Materials:

  • Headphones

  • Soil Lab Handout

Today's Agenda

1. Set up soil lab to run over Thanksgiving.

2. Independent Lesson & Notes on Topic 4.1 Plate Tectonics — Read, Watch, Take Notes.

3. Test Corrections, if eligible and needed, for Unit 3.

Soil Lab Setup

1. Read AP Classroom Lab 7:

   • Topic: Physical & Chemical Properties of Soil.

   • Answer individually on a sheet of lined paper.

   • Sections to Cover: Overview & Purpose, Pre-Lab Activity, Pre-Lab Questions, Getting Started, Procedure (up to Part 1), skip to Part III.

2. Perform Part III, Day 1: Complete only up to step 3 (detergent).

3. Clean up your station; then work independently on Lesson 4.1 in Schoology (includes a lot of short videos). Plug in headphones and get started.

Unit 4: Earth Systems & Resources

• Enduring Understanding: The Earth’s systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.

Course Structure Note

• Unit 4 will be taught over multiple units where the topics fit better with other content. This unit will cover only 4.1-4.3. Keep the other handouts received in a safe place for future use!

Learning Intentions - Topic 4.1: Plate Tectonics

• Objective: Learning about the processes that occur at plate boundaries.

• Success Criteria: Can describe the geological changes and events at convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries.

Essential Knowledge

• ERT-4.A.1: Convergent boundaries can create mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, volcanoes.

• ERT-4.A.2: Divergent boundaries can lead to seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

• ERT-4.A.3: Transform boundaries result in earthquakes.

• ERT-4.A.4: Maps of global plate boundaries indicate locations of volcanoes, island arcs, earthquakes, hot spots, and faults.

• ERT-4.A.5: Earthquakes occur when stress overcomes a locked fault, releasing stored energy.

Learning Method

• Recommended Presentation: Go through this lesson in Slideshow mode to get the full presentation effect. Take notes, especially if Earth Science hasn't been reviewed!

Video on Earth's Structure

• Topics covered:

  • Lithosphere

  • Lower Mantle

  • Outer Core

  • Tectonic Plates

Earth's Internal Structure Overview

• Layers of Earth:

  • Crust: 0-100 km thick

  • Upper Mantle

  • Lower Mantle: Extends to 2900 km

  • Outer Core (liquid): Composed mainly of Nickel and Iron; extends to 5100 km

  • Inner Core (Solid): Composed of Nickel and Iron; extends to 6378 km

  • Lithosphere: Comprises the crust and uppermost solid mantle.

Density Differences in Plates

• Continental Crust: Lower density (felsic).

• Ocean Crust: Higher density (mafic).

• Asthenosphere: Weak, facilitating plate movement.

Movement of Tectonic Plates

• Heat Production: Radioactive elements release heat from the mantle, creating a sea of magma that drives the movement of tectonic plates.

Plate Boundaries: Overview

• Divergent Boundary Formation:

  • Mid-oceanic ridges (underground mountain ranges)

  • Volcanoes

  • Sea floor spreading

  • Rift Valleys (on land)

Convergent Boundary Formation

• Types of Movements:

  • Two continental plates converge create mountains and volcanoes.

  • A continental plate converging with an oceanic plate forms oceanic trenches.

Transform Boundary Formations

• Common Results: Earthquakes occur frequently at these boundaries when stress is released.

Summary of Plate Boundaries

• Success criteria: Can describe and explain Convergent, Divergent, and Transform plate boundaries, their mechanisms, and resultant formations.

Earthquake Prediction and Occurrence

• Tectonic Map is a prediction tool for earthquakes, volcanoes, and new island formations.

• Key areas include the “Ring of Fire”.

Soil Lab Introduction

• Next Lessons: Focus on Soil Formation & Erosion (Topic 4.2)

• Materials Needed for Lab Tests: Soil lab from previous class, writing instruments.

Finish Soil Lab Independently

• Now Cover: Layers, Chemical Tests, and Percolation Rate.

Fundamental Understanding of Soil

• Definition of Soil: A living system consisting of a mix of geologic (disintegrated rock), organic matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microbes.

• Soil Composition: Roughly 50% mineral matter, up to 5% organic matter, with the remainder as pore space filled with air or water.

Soil Importance

• Critical for plant growth and supporting ecosystems; acts as a filter for water.

• Influences biodiversity and nutrient cycling.

• Integral to Earth's natural capital, supporting life and economies.

Soil Formation Processes

• Key components include mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering.

• Parent Material: Base geologic material, including hardened lava, rock, sediment.

• Essential for creating a soil profile consisting of horizons originating from weathering processes.

Characteristics of Soil Horizons

• Structure includes layers formed through sediment deposition influenced by environmental factors, leading to distinct horizons.

Topic 4.3: Soil Composition & Properties

Learning Intention

• Objective: Understanding the properties and comparisons of different soil types.

Success Criteria

• Can describe water holding capacity and its impact on soil productivity and fertility.

• Can explain how particle size and composition affect permeability, porosity, and fertility across soil horizons.

• Can conduct tests to determine chemical, physical, and biological properties relevant for irrigation and fertilizer decisions.

• Can use a soil texture triangle to classify soil composition.

Physical Tests for Soil Properties

• Permeability/Percolation Rate: Measures how quickly water infiltrates soil, dependent on how tightly packed soil grains are.

• Moisture Content: The amount of water present in the soil at a given time.

• Porosity: The volume of pore space available for water to pass through the soil.

• Soil Texture: Determined through soil sieves and particle size analysis to ascertain the percentage of sand, silt, and clay.

Physical Test: Soil Porosity

• Drainage Rate: Speed at which water drains through different soil types, affected by soil texture.

Physical Test: Particle Size Comparison

• Soil Particles:

  • Gravel: Large particles, visible; typically > 2mm.

  • Sand: Medium particles, 0.05mm - 2mm.

  • Silt: Fine particles, 0.002mm - 0.05mm.

  • Clay: Very fine particles < 0.002mm.

Physical Test: Particle Size Comparison Continued

• Definition of Porosity: Refers to the space available between soil particles.

• Larger Pores: Found in sandy soils, allowing better air and water access to roots.

• Small Pores: Found in clay soils, leading to less porosity, impacting drainage and oxygen availability for roots.

Soil Permeability Questions

1. Question: Which container do you think will drain the fastest? Slowest? Provide reasoning.

2. Question: Estimate the time taken for the water to drain in each container.

Physical Test: Permeability

• Definition: Refers to how easily water drains through soil.

• Impact of Soil Type:

  • Sandy soils have high permeability which can lead to rapid drainage.

  • Clay soils have low permeability, leading to water being held tightly but can cause lack of oxygen to roots.

Importance of Porosity and Permeability

• These properties affect both water retention and nutrient-holding capacity:

  • Sand: Excellent permeability, but low nutrient retention due to fast drainage.

  • Clay: Negatively charged, binds positively charged nutrients but excessive amounts lead to impermeable conditions.

• Ideal Soil Composition: A blend of sand, silt, and clay ensures optimal quality for nutrient retention and drainage.

Physical Test: Soil Texture Analysis

• Technique: A sieve can sort soil into sand, silt, and clay, allowing the calculation of percentages for texture classification.

• Soil Texture Triangle Usage: Visual tool to classify soils based on proportions of sand, silt, and clay.

Example of Soil Texture Calculation

1. Measure the height of each particle layer in a given container.

2. Determine percentage by dividing the height of each layer by the total height.

   • Example Calculation:

     • Sand: 3.4mm

     • Silt: 5.9mm

     • Clay: 0.7mm

     • Total = 10mm

     • % Sand = ( rac{3.4}{10}) imes 100 = 34 ext{ extperthousand}

     • % Silt = ( rac{5.9}{10}) imes 100 = 59 ext{ extperthousand}

     • % Clay = ( rac{0.7}{10}) imes 100 = 7 ext{ extperthousand}

Practice Problems for Soil Texture Classification

Practice Problem 1

• Input Data:

  • % Sand: 12

  • % Silt: 76

  • % Clay: 12

Practice Problem 2

• Input Data:

  • % Sand: 71

  • % Silt: 24

  • % Clay: 5

Soil Textural Classes Overview

Ideal Soil for Fertility

• Characteristics:

  • Good porosity for water movement without excessive speed.

  • Balanced permeability to retain adequate moisture.

• Ideal Conditions:

  • Composition should ideally be 40% Sand, 40% Silt, 20% Clay, often resulting in Loam which retains nutrients efficiently while allowing drainage.

Soil Fertility Factors

• Influences on fertility include:

  • Quantity of organic material and biotic communities.

  • Predominant location of plant roots, primarily in O and A horizons due to high organic content.

• Characteristics of Fertile Soil:

  • Dark brown or black, indicating high nitrogen and organic matter.

  • Presence of microorganisms like nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

  • Significant humus content alongside sediment.

  • Adequate texture for water retention to facilitate nutrient uptake.

Chemical Testing for Soil Quality

Soil Quality Assessment

• Chemical Tests: Analyze nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium content to assess soil fertility.

• Optimal Ranges:

  • Phosphorus: 30-50ppm

  • Nitrogen: 40ppm

  • Potassium: 100-250ppm (depends on soil texture and organic matter).

• Also vital to assess soil pH as it impacts nutrient availability.

Nutrient Requirements in Soil

Macro-nutrients

• Nitrogen (N): Encourages green foliage growth; influences yield and fruit quality.

• Phosphorus (P): Supports root system strength and seed yield development.

• Potassium (K): Impacts plant vitality and fruit quality; works against excess nitrogen.

Micro-nutrients

• Essential for plant growth, required in smaller quantities.

  • Includes elements like Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), etc.

Factors Affecting Soil Nutrients

• Enhancing organic matter through decomposition and humus generation boosts nutrient release.

• Resistance of clay to nutrient loss due to its charge.; erosion may deplete nutrients.

• Excessive rain leaches nutrients, impacting agricultural yields.

Soil Buffers in Maintaining pH

• Buffers neutralize acidic precipitation, stabilizing soil pH.

• Components that serve as soil buffers include:

  • Limestone, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate.

Factors Affecting Water Holding Capacity

• Enhance water retention through:

  • Aerated soils allowing biological activity.

  • Compost and humus which moisture-retain and reduce evaporation.

• Negative factors include compacted soil, erosion, and high sand content preventing moisture retention.

Benefits of Native Plants

• Native plants possess deep root systems, aiding in preventing runoff flooding and soil erosion.

• They absorb significantly more runoff compared to non-native plants and contribute to improved air quality through carbon sequestration.

Soil Chemistry Problems and Solutions

Common Soil Chemical Issues

• Solutions:

  • Adding organic materials to enrich nutrients and enhance aeration.

  • Employing crop rotation for nutrient management.

  • Allowing soil to rest to enable natural nutrient recycling.

Fertilizer Pros and Cons

• Pros:

  • Easy access and application.

  • Immediate nutrient availability; boosts yields.

• Cons:

  • Can burn plants; lacks organic matter addition.

  • Energy-intensive production and transportation.

Soil Management and Remediation

Factors Affecting Soil pH

• Importance of maintaining pH between 6-8 for optimal nutrient uptake.

• Remediative measures include adding limestone for acidic soil or organic matter for alkaline soil.

Addressing Physical Problems

• Common Issues:

  • Fast-draining soils can be amended to improve moisture retention.

  • Slow-draining soils can be enhanced through sand application to facilitate particle separation.

Soil Conservation Practices

• Essential understanding of soil as a nonrenewable resource needing protection.

• Erosion due to natural factors and anthropogenic activities exacerbates soil loss

  • Industrial agriculture, overgrazing, and deforestation are key contributors.

Summary of Soil Science

• Soil comprises organic and inorganic components classified by texture and nutrient content.

• Soil horizons and associated nutrient levels determine soil fertility crucial for ecosystems and agriculture.

• Soil conservation is critical to sustain this finite resource in agricultural practices.

Welcome

• Date: December 12(A) / 15(B)

• Agenda:

  • Topic 5.3 - Green Revolution - Lesson & Notes

  • Open-notes Quiz for Topics 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 in AP Classroom

Topic 5.3: The Green Revolution

Learning Intention

• Objective: To describe changes in agricultural practices.

Essential Knowledge

• The Green Revolution initiated a transition to new agricultural strategies and practices aimed at increasing food production, yielding both positive and negative outcomes.

• Key strategies and methods introduced:

  • Mechanization

  • Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

  • Fertilization

  • Irrigation

  • Use of pesticides

Mechanization of Farming

• Advantages:

  • Increases profits and efficiency for farms.

• Disadvantages:

  • Heightened reliance on fossil fuels.

Historical Context

Hunter-Gatherers (15,000 Years Ago)

• Lifestyle:

  • Survived by collecting wild plants and hunting native animals.

  • Generally nomadic with a high infant mortality rate and short life span (30-40 years).

• Advanced groups:

  • Utilized more advanced tools and converted forests to grasslands.

  • Contributed to the extinction of some large animal species.

• Characteristics:

  • Small population, limited ecological footprint, technological limitations.

Agricultural Revolution (10,000 Years Ago)

• Transition details:

  • Shifted from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled communities.

  • Farmers began to provide surplus food beyond family needs.

• Consequences:

  • Formation of towns and villages leading to urbanization.

  • Increased life spans.

• Negative impacts:

  • Habitat destruction due to slash-and-burn techniques.

  • Soil erosion and overgrazing.

  • Pollution.

Bad Farming Practices

• Historical example: Dust Bowl (1934-1940)

  • Affected regions: Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas.

• Associated issues:

  • Soil erosion, desertification, water deficits, and loss of biodiversity linked to modern agriculture.

Industrial Revolution (1775)

• Key features:

  • Centralization of factories for mass production.

  • Enhanced agricultural technology led to urban population growth.

• Transition from renewable resources (wood, water) to nonrenewable fossil fuels.

• Consequences:

  • Increased air pollution and dangerous working conditions.

Green Revolution (1950-1970)

Description

• Focused on increasing yields per unit area of cropland through:

  • Developing and planting monocultures of key crops.

  • Utilizing extensive fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.

  • Increasing the intensity and frequency of cropping.

Modern Food Production Facts

• Food sources:

  • 15 plant & 8 animal species account for 90% of global food supply.

  • Wheat, rice, and corn contribute approximately 50% of caloric intake and are all annual crops.

  • 2/3 of the global population primarily consumes grains (rice, wheat, corn).

  • Fish and shellfish provide about 1% of the energy for the global population.

Food Production Types

Major Categories

1. Industrialized agriculture

2. Subsistence agriculture

   • Traditional

   • Intensive

Subsistence Agriculture

• Definition:

  • Farmers grow food primarily for themselves and their families.

• Characteristics:

  • Planting decisions are made based on family needs rather than market demands.

  • Intensive subsistence farming prevalent in India and China allows exchange of excess food for goods.

Industrial Agriculture

• Description:

  • Involves large-scale production using high inputs, including inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, inexpensive fossil fuels, and irrigation.

Agricultural Practices: Before and After

Evolution

• Examination of how farming methods have transformed over time, primarily influenced by the Agricultural Revolution and the Green Revolution.

The Green Revolution Defined

• Transition from small, family-operated farms to large-scale industrial agribusiness during the late 1950s and 1960s.

• Increased use of mechanization, GMOs, irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides.

• Outcomes:

  • Enhanced land efficiency, short-term profitability, and food supply.

  • Reduction in world hunger and increased carrying capacity for humans, particularly in India, Pakistan, and Mexico.

• Negative effects include soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and ground/surface water contamination.

Mechanization: Pros and Cons

Advantages

• Speed:

  • Machinery, such as tractors and combines, accelerates food collection.

• Yield and Profit Increase:

  • Higher crop yields result in increased profits.

Disadvantages

• Environmental Impact:

  • Machines rely on fossil fuels, leading to greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to climate change.

  • Soil erosion due to topsoil disturbance and soil compaction by heavy machines, leading to dry soils and erosion.

High-Yield Variety (HYV) Crops

• Definition:

  • Genetically modified crops that yield more per unit area.

• Examples:

  • Wheat with large seed heads, disease-resistant varieties, and shorter plants for wind resistance.

• Advantages:

  • Increased yield and food stability in famine-prone areas.

• Disadvantages:

  • Loss of biodiversity due to widespread cultivation of GMOs.

GMOs

Overview

• Gene modification allows crops to gain traits such as drought, pest, and disease resistance, maximizing productivity and profitability.

Risks

• Reduced genetic diversity may increase vulnerability to diseases or pests, threatening entire crops.

• Uses laboratory techniques to incorporate genes into plants.

• Example:

  • Bt Corn produces its own pesticide.

Synthetic Fertilizers

Shift in Agriculture

• Transition from organic (manure and compost) to synthetic fertilizers (man-made with ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate).

Benefits

• Increased crop yields and profits by enhancing nutrient provisions (NPK) essential for plant growth.

Drawbacks

• Overuse can result in runoff, leading to eutrophication in waterways.

• Production reliance on fossil fuels increases carbon dioxide emissions and contributes to climate change.

Irrigation

Innovations

• Development of irrigation systems improved access to underground and surface water for crops.

Benefits

• Expands agriculture to drier regions, increasing arable land and food production.

Risks

• Overuse of water resources can deplete aquifers faster than they can recharge.

• Overwatering can lead to decreased oxygen supply to roots and increased soil salinization, harming plant growth.

Pesticides

Background

• The Green Revolution resulted in a substantial rise in synthetic pesticide usage, which involves applying chemicals to crops to eliminate pests and weeds.

Benefits

• Increased yields and profits as fewer plants are lost to pests.

Drawbacks

• Pesticide runoff contaminates soil and waterways, affecting non-target species.

  • Example:

  • DDT caused thinning of eagle egg shells.

  • Atrazine resulted in intersex conditions and infertility in amphibians and fish.

Conclusion and Assignments

• Reminder to:

  • Watch all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.3 from today's lesson.

  • Update notes while reviewing material.

  • Evaluate changes in agricultural practices related to the Green Revolution.

  • Provide a detailed assessment of the pros and cons associated with strategies introduced in the Green Revolution:

  • Mechanization

  • Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

  • Fertilization

  • Irrigation

  • Use of Pesticides

Welcome and Overview

• Date: December 16(A) / 17(B)

• Required Materials:

  • Unit 5 notes handouts

  • Homestead Project Handout

  • Schoology Slides for independent work

• Reminder: Turn in the soil lab if not submitted in the last class.

Today's Agenda

• Tasks: Read, watch, and take notes on the following lessons:

  • Lesson 5.4 - Impacts of Agricultural Practices

  • Lesson 5.5 - Irrigation Methods

  • Lesson 5.6 - Pest Control Methods

  • Lesson 5.14 - Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

  • Lesson 5.15 - Sustainable Agriculture

• Purpose: Use accumulated knowledge and notes to complete the final assignment for MK2 - Independent Homestead Project.

Independent Homestead Assignment

• Objective: To learn about and demonstrate an understanding of sustainable agricultural practices.

• Components:

  • Review Topics: 5.4 (Impacts of Agricultural Practices), 5.5, 5.6, 5.14 (IPM), and 5.15.

  • Project Link: Provided separately

• Time Allocation: Two class periods before Winter Break to work on notes and project, with homework to finish.

• Due Dates: January 7 (A), January 8 (B), 2026

Topic 5.4: Impact of Agricultural Practices

Learning Intention

• Objective: Describe agricultural practices that contribute to environmental damage.

Essential Knowledge

• Different agricultural practices that can cause environmental damage:

  • Tilling

  • Slash and burn farming

  • Use of fertilizers

Monocropping

• Description:

  • Primarily used for crops like corn, soy, and wheat.

• Benefits:

  • High efficiency in harvesting and application of pesticides and fertilizers.

• Drawbacks:

  • Reduced biodiversity due to a singular crop type, often genetically identical, making it vulnerable to pests.

  • Soil erosion risk increases due to exposure when crops are harvested at once.

  • Decreased habitat diversity affecting local species, including pollinators and predators.

Tilling

• Definition:

  • The agricultural practice of turning over soil to facilitate planting and root growth.

• Benefits:

  • Eases planting and root establishment.

• Environmental Impact:

  • Disruption of soil structure and release of sequestered carbon as CO2.

  • Increased CO2 emissions from machinery operations relying on fossil fuels.

  • Increased erosion as root structure is disturbed, leading to loss of topsoil and nutrients over time.

  • Higher levels of particulate matter (PM) can cause respiratory issues in humans and animals, as well as increased turbidity of nearby water bodies.

Slash and Burn Farming

• Description:

  • A method where vegetation is cut down and burned to clear land for agriculture, mostly practiced in developing countries (e.g., Africa, Indonesian Islands, Central America (Brazil)).

• Benefits:

  • Clears land and returns nutrients to the soil for subsequent crops.

• Negative Consequences:

  • Habitat and biodiversity loss, reduced CO2 sequestration and air pollutant filtration due to tree removal.

  • Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions including CO2, CO, N2O, contributing to global warming.

  • Increased PM levels from burning, leading to respiratory issues such as asthma, as well as decreased albedo, raising temperatures in the area.

  • Unsustainability arises as nutrients are quickly depleted, necessitating additional slash-and-burn activities for future crops.

Synthetic (Inorganic) Fertilizers

• Definition:

  • Man-made chemicals designed to enhance plant growth.

• Advantages:

  • Provide rapid nutrient delivery and precise control over nutrient application, making them cost-effective for large-scale farming.

• Disadvantages:

  • No organic matter is returned to the soil, leading to decreased water retention and a lack of soil decomposers.

  • Risk of leaching, where excess nutrients (nitrates & phosphates) are washed into ground and surface waters, causing drinking water contamination and eutrophication, which leads to harmful algal blooms.

Conclusion for Topic 5.4

• Review Reminder:

  • Watch all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.4 from today’s lesson.

  • Make sure to add to your notes as you read and watch the videos.

• Key Practices to Highlight:

  • Monocropping

  • Tilling

  • Slash-and-burn farming

  • Use of synthetic / inorganic fertilizers

Topic 5.5 - Irrigation Methods

Learning Intention

• Goal: Understand different methods used to irrigate agricultural land.

Essential Knowledge

• Definition of Irrigation: Irrigation refers to the artificial application of water to soil or land to assist in the growing of crops.

• Significance of Irrigation: It represents the largest human use of freshwater, constituting approximately 70% of total freshwater usage globally.

• Types of Irrigation Systems: There are several recognized methods of irrigation including:

  • Drip Irrigation

  • Flood Irrigation

  • Furrow Irrigation

  • Spray Irrigation

Detailed Examination of Irrigation Methods

1. Spray Irrigation

• Also Known As: Sprinkler irrigation.

• Applications: Widely used for watering lawns, parks, golf courses, and large agricultural areas growing crops such as corn and soybeans.

• Advantages:

  • Covers large, uneven areas effectively.

  • Saves labor/time through automation and offers adaptability for various soil types and crop conditions.

  • Allows for the potential application of fertilizers through a method known as fertigation.

• Disadvantages:

  • High water loss due to evaporation and wind

  • Elevated energy and installation costs.

  • Can foster disease and weeds because of wet foliage.

  • Uneven water distribution may occur in windy or hot conditions, often making it less efficient compared to drip systems or center pivots for large-scale farms.

2. Drip Irrigation

• Applications: Commonly utilized in agriculture for high-value crops (such as orchards and vineyards) and in landscaping. Ideal for dry climates and sloped areas.

• Mechanism: Water is delivered directly to the plant roots, significantly reducing waste from evaporation and runoff.

• Advantages:

  • Achieves water savings of 90%+ efficiency.

  • Promotes better crop yields and reduces soil erosion.

  • Delivers precise nutrients directly to the roots.

• Disadvantages:

  • High initial setup costs and complexity.

  • Risk of clogging from unfiltered water.

  • Labor-intensive installation and maintenance requirements (filters, tubing).

  • Demands careful design considerations based on different crops and soil types.

3. Furrow Irrigation

• Applications: Typically employed for row crops like corn, cotton, potatoes, and soybeans; especially effective on gently sloping land (less than 0.75%-1% grade).

• Mechanism: Water flows down channels (furrows) between crop rows, providing a cost-effective solution, particularly in developing regions.

• Advantages:

  • Maintains dry plant bases (avoiding "wet feet" stress).

  • Facilitates gravity-driven water movement, reducing the need for mechanization.

• Disadvantages:

  • Less precise than drip irrigation; potential for runoff issues.

  • Often relies on flood irrigation principles, which can potentially waste water and cause less efficient results compared to newer techniques.

4. Flood Irrigation

• Applications: Utilized for crops needing standing water, such as rice, and row crops like corn and cotton.

• Mechanism: Involves flooding the entire field surface, utilizing gravity to distribute water.

• Advantages:

  • Low setup and operational costs, suitable for areas with abundant water.

  • Promotes deep root penetration through thorough soil wetting.

• Disadvantages:

  • High inefficiency due to evaporation and runoff; significant water waste.

  • Increased risks of soil erosion and salinization.

  • Heavy labor required for land preparation and maintenance.

Comparison of Irrigation Methods

• Efficiency: Drip irrigation is the most efficient method, while flood irrigation tends to waste the most water.

• Cost: Initial costs are lowest for flood and furrow methods, while drip and spray irrigation require greater investment.

• Suitability: Drip irrigation excels in dry climates and for specialized crops; flood irrigation is more general-purpose for water-abundant regions.

Irrigation Problems

1. Salinization

• Definition: Salinization refers to the buildup of salts in soil, which often occurs in dry climates where irrigation is common.

• Impacts: Leads to water stress in plants, nutrient imbalances, and reduced agricultural yields. It affects nearly half of global irrigated land.

• Contributing Factors:

  • Poor drainage and inefficient irrigation methods (like furrow).

  • Utilizing water sources high in salt content exacerbates the issue.

• Solutions: Effective water management, utilizing salt-tolerant crops, and soil amendments (e.g., biochar).

2. Saltwater Intrusion

• Definition: Saltwater intrusion occurs when over-extraction of freshwater lowers water tables, allowing seawater to infiltrate aquifers.

• Consequences: Deteriorates the quality of drinking and irrigation water, negatively impacting agriculture and coastal ecosystems.

• Worsening Factors: Accelerated by sea-level rise and can cause yield reductions in crops like corn and soybeans.

• Management Strategies: Implementing soil amendments like gypsum, cultivating salt-tolerant crops, and enhancing freshwater management practices.

3. Zone of Depletion

• Definition: Refers to the regions where excessive groundwater pumping leads to lowered water tables, creating a cone of depression that depletes aquifers.

• Effects: Increases pumping costs, degrades local ecosystems, and can lead to land subsidence.

• Management: Establishing Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) thresholds and monitoring aquifer levels to ensure water sustainability.

Case Study: Aquifer Depletion

• Ogallala Aquifer: Facing severe depletion due to over-extraction for agricultural irrigation in states like Kansas, Texas, and Oklahoma.

• Challenges: The extraction rate vastly exceeds the natural recharge rate, leading to potential collapse of aquifer structures and increasing concerns regarding water quality.

• Similar Issues: The Colorado River and the Aral Sea also showcase similar patterns of unsustainable resource use in agriculture.

Conclusion

• Study Reminders:

  • Watch all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.5.

  • Update your notes and ensure you can describe the pros and cons of each irrigation method: Flood, Furrow, Drip, Spray.

Essential Knowledge

• One consequence of using common pest-control methods (e.g., pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, insecticides) is the potential for organisms to become resistant to these substances through artificial selection.

• Pest control strategies aim to decrease crop damage caused by pests and thereby increase overall crop yields.

• Genetic engineering can be applied to crops to enhance their resistance to pests and diseases.

• However, the utilization of genetically engineered crops may lead to a significant loss of genetic diversity within that particular crop species.

Topic 5.6 - Pest Control

Learning Intention

• Describe agricultural practices that lead to environmental damage.

Pesticides

• Definition: Substances employed to control various types of pests, which include both plant and animal organisms.

• Four common categories of pesticides:

  • Herbicides

  • Fungicides

  • Rodenticides

  • Insecticides

Herbicides

• Definition: Pesticides specifically aimed at controlling unwanted vegetation, including grasses and weeds.

• Classification of herbicides:

  • Selectivity: determines whether they target specific weeds or all plants.

  • Selective herbicides: Target specific types of weeds.

  • Non-selective herbicides: Eliminate all plant life they contact.

    • Example: Traditional Roundup products are noted as non-selective herbicides due to their active ingredient, glyphosate, which kills all contacted plants.

  • Timing of Application:

  • Pre-emergent: Applied before weeds germinate.

  • Post-emergent: Applied after weeds have emerged.

  • Mechanism of Action:

  • Systemic: Absorbed by plants and moved throughout the plant system.

  • Contact: Kill weeds upon direct contact.

Fungicides

• Definition: Pesticides that target and combat fungal diseases in plants.

• Use-cases include:

  • Preventing or controlling invasive fungal diseases such as rusts, mildews, and blights that may damage crops and reduce yield.

  • Protecting seeds, which promotes their growth into healthy mature plants.

  • Assuring crops achieve maximum yield and quality potential.

  • Safeguarding ornamental plants and turf from diseases.

Rodenticides

• Definition: Pesticides utilized in agriculture to manage rodent pests including rats, mice, voles, and gophers that can damage crops, transmit diseases, and spoil feed.

• Types of rodenticides:

  • Anticoagulant rodenticides: Interfere with blood clotting.

  • Non-anticoagulant rodenticides: Operate through other mechanisms.

• Formulations: Commonly presented in forms such as baits, pellets, pastes, or grains.

• Regulation: Their use is subject to regulations to minimize risks to non-target animals.

• Major downside: The use of rodenticides can inadvertently result in the death of non-target species within the food chain.

Insecticides

• Definition: Pesticides specifically formulated to eliminate insects.

• Historical Context:

  • DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was widely utilized but resulted in severe issues concerning biomagnification; banned in the U.S. in 1972, but remains in use in certain developing countries.

• Mechanism of Action: Common insecticides target the nervous systems of insects.

• Biological Insecticides: Also referred to as biopesticides, are derived from natural materials encompassing plants, bacteria, fungi, or minerals for pest control.

  • General benefits include lower toxicity levels and selective targeting, often affecting only the intended pest and closely related organisms.

• GMOs: Certain genetically modified organisms incorporate plant-protectants that function as their insecticide.

Weighing the Impacts of Pesticides

• Benefits:

  • They contribute positively to food security by ensuring a reliable and healthy food supply.

  • Serve protective roles against diseases such as Malaria and Lyme Disease through targeting relevant pests.

  • Capable of addressing issues with parasitic or invasive species effectively.

• Drawbacks:

  • Highly toxic to non-target species including birds, bees, mammals, and aquatic organisms.

  • Potential sources of soil and water pollution.

  • Associated with health issues such as cancer, birth defects, and various neurological problems.

  • Economic concerns arise due to the costs associated with excessive or abundant applications.

  • Pests can develop resistance, resulting in heightened usage and escalated costs.

Development of Pesticide Resistance

• Conceptual Diagram:

  • Before pesticide application: Presence of pests before the use of pesticides.

  • After pesticide application: The initial impact of pesticides on pest populations.

  • Later generations: Evolution of pest resistance with successive applications of pesticides, leading to reduced efficacy.

Conclusion and Next Steps

• Topic 5.6 instructional actions include:

  • View all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.6 from the current lesson.

  • Enhance your notes with observations from readings and video content.

  • Key focus areas to consider:

  • Benefits and drawbacks of various pest control methods, covering:

    • Pesticides

    • Herbicides

    • Fungicides

    • Rodenticides

    • Insecticides

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Overview of IPM

• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a comprehensive approach aimed at controlling pest species while minimizing harm to the environment, wildlife, and human health.

  • It combines various methods of pest control, including biological, physical, and limited chemical strategies.

  • IPM is complex and can be costly; however, its advantages include reduced risks associated with pesticide use.

Essential Knowledge

• Definition: Integrated Pest Management (IPM) refers to a combination of pest control techniques designed to effectively manage pest populations while minimizing environmental disruption.

• Methods Included in IPM:

  • Biocontrol: Utilizing natural predators to control pest populations.

  • Intercropping: Growing two or more crops in proximity to improve pest control.

  • Crop Rotation: Alternating the types of crops grown to disrupt pest life cycles.

What is IPM?

• IPM is a science-based strategy that incorporates multiple techniques to study and manage pest relationships with their environment.

• Key IPM Tools:

  • Altering surroundings to deter pests.

  • Introducing beneficial insects or organisms.

  • Growing pest-resistant plant varieties.

  • Disrupting pest development and behaviors.

  • Employing pesticides as necessary.

Steps in IPM Process

1. Prevent

   • Implement practices such as using resistant plants, early planting, crop rotation, installing barriers, maintaining sanitation, and sealing building cracks to prevent pest problems.

2. Identify/Monitor

   • Determine the causative pest agent and its population abundance.

   • Assistance can be obtained from local extension agents to identify the pest accurately.

3. Evaluate

   • Analyze monitoring results to determine:

     • Is the pest causing significant damage?

     • Is intervention necessary?

   • If pest numbers approach economic thresholds, actions may be warranted.

4. Action

   • Utilize multiple tactics to keep pests below economically damaging levels.

   • Select preventive and curative treatments carefully to avoid over-reliance on one method, enhancing the success rate of IPM.

5. Monitor

   • Continuously observe pest population trends; if pest numbers drop, further treatment may not be required. If populations exceed action thresholds, alternative tools must be employed.

Where Can You Practice IPM?

• Buildings and Homes:

  • Inspect regularly and identify pests; implement preventive measures to keep pests out.

  • Maintain sanitation to deprive pests of food and water sources; use traps or low-risk pesticides when necessary.

• Farms:

  • Regularly inspect for pests and damage; use pest-resistant plant varieties, promote beneficial insects, and time planting to mitigate pest impact.

  • If needed, apply low-risk pesticides.

• Managed Natural Systems:

  • Identify pests while choosing management strategies that pose minimal risk to pollinators, humans, and pets.

Companion Planting to Repel Pests

• Companion planting employs natural methods of pest management rather than solely relying on chemical pesticides.

  • Definition: Intentionally planting specific species near crops to deter pests through natural scents or to attract natural predators.

  • Examples of Natural Pest Control:

  • Strong scents from marigolds and basil can repel pests, while certain plants can attract beneficial insects like ladybugs.

  • Companion planting is one tactic within a broader IPM framework, which includes monitoring pest occurrences, understanding pest ecology, and utilizing biological controls, reserving chemicals for last-resort applications.

Important Reminders

• Watch all AP Classroom videos for Topic 5.14 to further expand knowledge on Integrated Pest Management.

• Take notes and engage with concepts such as:

  • Basics of IPM

  • Benefits and challenges associated with IPM

  • Roles of biocontrol, crop rotation, and intercropping in minimizing environmental disruptions and threats to human health.

Sustainable Agriculture

Learning Intention

• Describe sustainable agricultural and food production practices.

Essential Knowledge

• Goal of Soil Conservation: Prevent soil erosion.

• Methods of Soil Conservation:

  • Contour plowing

  • Windbreaks

  • Perennial crops

  • Terracing

  • No-till agriculture

  • Strip cropping

• Strategies to Improve Soil Fertility:

  • Crop rotation

  • Addition of green manure

  • Addition of limestone

• Rotational Grazing: Regularly rotate livestock between different pastures to avoid overgrazing in a particular area.

Soil Conservation

• Definition: An agricultural technique aimed at minimal erosion and prevention of soil damage, as well as the restoration of damaged soil.

• Fact: Topsoil erodes 10 times faster than it forms in the U.S., emphasizing the need for preservation.

Contour Plowing

• Definition: Plowing fields with the shape of the land, or parallel to natural slopes.

• Purpose: Prevent erosion, retain nutrients, soil moisture, and decomposers in the soil.

• Pros:

  • Reduced soil erosion

  • Improved water infiltration

  • Increased crop yields due to better moisture and nutrient retention.

• Cons:

  • Increased costs for labor and equipment

  • Potential for waterlogging

  • May be less efficient or suitable for certain crops or land types.

Terracing

• Definition: Building flat, level steps or platforms into hillsides or slopes.

• Purpose: Prevent soil erosion.

• Pros:

  • Reduces soil erosion

  • Conserves water

  • Boosts crop yields

  • Improves water quality by trapping sediment.

• Cons:

  • High initial construction costs

  • Significant labor or machinery needs

  • Potential for waterlogging or nutrient leaching if mismanaged.

  • Landscape disturbance requiring constant upkeep to avoid catastrophic failure like gully erosion or landslides.

Perennial Crops

• Definition: Plants that return year after year, harvested at different times. The whole plant is not removed, allowing longer roots to grow.

• Pros:

  • Reduced labor and lower long-term costs

  • Improved soil health (less erosion, more microbes)

  • Improved biodiversity and climate resilience due to deeper roots and less tilling

  • Potential savings on water and fertilizer costs.

• Cons:

  • Higher initial investment

  • Slower establishment with less yield in first few years

  • Challenges with pest and disease management without crop rotation

  • Requires careful planning for weed and pest control as they stay planted.

Windbreaks & Buffers

• Definition: Planting rows of trees to reduce wind erosion and absorb runoff.

• Uses: Trees can also provide firewood or fruit.

• Pros:

  • Reduced soil erosion

  • Increased crop and livestock yields

  • Energy savings

  • Enhanced wildlife habitat.

• Cons:

  • Land loss

  • Competition for resources (water, nutrients, light) with nearby crops

  • Potential insect and disease issues

  • Need for careful design to avoid snow drift problems and shading, requiring thorough planning for success.

No-Till Agriculture

• Definition: Leaving plant residue in the soil instead of tilling, using a drill to plant seeds in unturned soil.

• Pros:

  • Adds organic matter, nutrients, and moisture

  • Anchors soil in place which reduces erosion

  • Saves fuel and labor

  • Improves soil health (moisture, organic matter, structure, microbes)

  • Sequesters carbon

  • Can increase yields over time.

• Cons:

  • Requires more herbicides initially

  • Needs good residue management (can appear messy, susceptible to blowing away)

  • May delay spring planting on wet soils

  • Takes time for soil adjustments, posing challenges for new adopters.

Intercropping / Strip Cropping

• Definition: Different crops are sown in alternate strips to prevent soil erosion.

• Pros:

  • Boosts yields and soil health

  • Enhances pest control and risk management

  • Improves resource use (light, water, nutrients)

  • Reduces erosion.

• Cons:

  • Complexity requiring expert knowledge

  • Challenges in managing different growth cycles

  • Increased labor

  • Potential competition for resources, complicating mechanized farming.

Methods to Improve Soil Fertility

Crop Rotation

• Definition: Growing different crops in the same field each year to prevent depletion of nutrients from the soil.

• Pros:

  • Boosts soil health

  • Increases fertility (especially nitrogen)

  • Reduces pests, diseases, and weeds

  • Decreases reliance on chemicals

  • Increases water retention and yields.

• Cons:

  • Requires more planning and knowledge

  • May need specific machinery

  • Financial risks associated with different seed varieties

  • Less suited for certain perennial crops

  • Greater management effort needed.

Green Manure (Cover Crops)

• Definition: Planting legumes or other cover crops in the off-season or between harvests (e.g., soybeans, peanuts). Leave remains to restore nutrients used by other crops in that same field.

• Pros:

  • Prevents erosion

  • Improves soil health (organic matter, structure, nutrients)

  • Fixes nitrogen (in legumes)

  • Recycles nutrients and feeds soil microbes

  • Suppresses weeds and manages water usage.

• Cons:

  • Added costs (for seed, labor)

  • Potential competition for water with cash crops

  • Management challenges in planting and termination

  • Risk of becoming weeds if mismanaged, requiring careful planning.

Addition of Crushed Limestone

• What: Using crushed limestone (aglime) in farming.

• Pros:

  • Neutralizes acidic soil (pH correction)

  • Boosts nutrient availability (calcium, magnesium)

  • Improves soil structure (drainage, aeration, less crusting)

  • Reduces toxic elements (aluminum, manganese)

  • Benefits soil microbes, cost-effective long-term amendment for healthier, productive crops.

• Cons:

  • Slow acting

  • Requires soil testing to avoid over-application (which binds other nutrients)

  • Can be dusty unless pelletized

  • May require tillage for effective mixing.

Rotational Grazing

• Definition: A system where grazed paddocks are rested for a period, allowing for vegetation regrowth. Livestock are regularly moved to new paddocks.

• Benefits:

  • Improves soil health and carbon sequestration capacity

  • Enhances livestock herd health

  • Rest periods allow deeper root systems to grow, increasing plant nutrients and reducing soil erosion and water pollution.

Agroforestry

• Definition: A land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland.

• Pros:

  • Improved soil health

  • Biodiversity enhancement

  • Climate resilience (drought/flood/wind protection)

  • Diverse income streams (timber, fruit, crops)

  • Lower input costs (less fertilizer/pesticides).

• Cons:

  • High initial labor and costs

  • Long payback periods

  • Technical complexity

  • Potential for competition for resources (light, water, nutrients)

  • Market and policy hurdles.

Permaculture

• Definition: The conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems that mimic the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.

• Pros:

  • Sustainability

  • Reduced costs (water, fertilizer)

  • Biodiversity boosts and resilience

  • More labor-efficient in the long run.

• Cons:

  • Slow start with high initial effort and cost

  • Potential for pest and disease issues without chemical interventions

  • Scaling difficulties for mass production

  • Learning curve for new practitioners, making it less convenient for modern, fast-paced needs initially.

Summary Remarks

• Future of Food: Focus on sustainable agricultural practices that contribute to food security and environmental health.

• Required Knowledge for Sustainable Practices: Students should watch AP Classroom videos and be prepared to describe various sustainable practices in agriculture, strategies to improve soil fertility, and the key benefits of rotational grazing for maintaining soil health.

Sustainable Agriculture

Learning Intention

• Describe sustainable agricultural and food production practices.

Essential Knowledge

• Goal of Soil Conservation: Prevent soil erosion.

• Methods of Soil Conservation:

  • Contour plowing

  • Windbreaks

  • Perennial crops

  • Terracing

  • No-till agriculture

  • Strip cropping

• Strategies to Improve Soil Fertility:

  • Crop rotation

  • Addition of green manure

  • Addition of limestone

• Rotational Grazing: Regularly rotate livestock between different pastures to avoid overgrazing in a particular area.

Soil Conservation

• Definition: An agricultural technique aimed at minimal erosion and prevention of soil damage, as well as the restoration of damaged soil.

• Fact: Topsoil erodes 10 times faster than it forms in the U.S., emphasizing the need for preservation.

Contour Plowing

• Definition: Plowing fields with the shape of the land, or parallel to natural slopes.

• Purpose: Prevent erosion, retain nutrients, soil moisture, and decomposers in the soil.

• Pros:

  • Reduced soil erosion

  • Improved water infiltration

  • Increased crop yields due to better moisture and nutrient retention.

• Cons:

  • Increased costs for labor and equipment

  • Potential for waterlogging

  • May be less efficient or suitable for certain crops or land types.

Terracing

• Definition: Building flat, level steps or platforms into hillsides or slopes.

• Purpose: Prevent soil erosion.

• Pros:

  • Reduces soil erosion

  • Conserves water

  • Boosts crop yields

  • Improves water quality by trapping sediment.

• Cons:

  • High initial construction costs

  • Significant labor or machinery needs

  • Potential for waterlogging or nutrient leaching if mismanaged.

  • Landscape disturbance requiring constant upkeep to avoid catastrophic failure like gully erosion or landslides.

Perennial Crops

• Definition: Plants that return year after year, harvested at different times. The whole plant is not removed, allowing longer roots to grow.

• Pros:

  • Reduced labor and lower long-term costs

  • Improved soil health (less erosion, more microbes)

  • Improved biodiversity and climate resilience due to deeper roots and less tilling

  • Potential savings on water and fertilizer costs.

• Cons:

  • Higher initial investment

  • Slower establishment with less yield in first few years

  • Challenges with pest and disease management without crop rotation

  • Requires careful planning for weed and pest control as they stay planted.

Windbreaks & Buffers

• Definition: Planting rows of trees to reduce wind erosion and absorb runoff.

• Uses: Trees can also provide firewood or fruit.

• Pros:

  • Reduced soil erosion

  • Increased crop and livestock yields

  • Energy savings

  • Enhanced wildlife habitat.

• Cons:

  • Land loss

  • Competition for resources (water, nutrients, light) with nearby crops

  • Potential insect and disease issues

  • Need for careful design to avoid snow drift problems and shading, requiring thorough planning for success.

No-Till Agriculture

• Definition: Leaving plant residue in the soil instead of tilling, using a drill to plant seeds in unturned soil.

• Pros:

  • Adds organic matter, nutrients, and moisture

  • Anchors soil in place which reduces erosion

  • Saves fuel and labor

  • Improves soil health (moisture, organic matter, structure, microbes)

  • Sequesters carbon

  • Can increase yields over time.

• Cons:

  • Requires more herbicides initially

  • Needs good residue management (can appear messy, susceptible to blowing away)

  • May delay spring planting on wet soils

  • Takes time for soil adjustments, posing challenges for new adopters.

Intercropping / Strip Cropping

• Definition: Different crops are sown in alternate strips to prevent soil erosion.

• Pros:

  • Boosts yields and soil health

  • Enhances pest control and risk management

  • Improves resource use (light, water, nutrients)

  • Reduces erosion.

• Cons:

  • Complexity requiring expert knowledge

  • Challenges in managing different growth cycles

  • Increased labor

  • Potential competition for resources, complicating mechanized farming.

Methods to Improve Soil Fertility

Crop Rotation

• Definition: Growing different crops in the same field each year to prevent depletion of nutrients from the soil.

• Pros:

  • Boosts soil health

  • Increases fertility (especially nitrogen)

  • Reduces pests, diseases, and weeds

  • Decreases reliance on chemicals

  • Increases water retention and yields.

• Cons:

  • Requires more planning and knowledge

  • May need specific machinery

  • Financial risks associated with different seed varieties

  • Less suited for certain perennial crops

  • Greater management effort needed.

Green Manure (Cover Crops)

• Definition: Planting legumes or other cover crops in the off-season or between harvests (e.g., soybeans, peanuts). Leave remains to restore nutrients used by other crops in that same field.

• Pros:

  • Prevents erosion

  • Improves soil health (organic matter, structure, nutrients)

  • Fixes nitrogen (in legumes)

  • Recycles nutrients and feeds soil microbes

  • Suppresses weeds and manages water usage.

• Cons:

  • Added costs (for seed, labor)

  • Potential competition for water with cash crops

  • Management challenges in planting and termination

  • Risk of becoming weeds if mismanaged, requiring careful planning.

Addition of Crushed Limestone

• What: Using crushed limestone (aglime) in farming.

• Pros:

  • Neutralizes acidic soil (pH correction)

  • Boosts nutrient availability (calcium, magnesium)

  • Improves soil structure (drainage, aeration, less crusting)

  • Reduces toxic elements (aluminum, manganese)

  • Benefits soil microbes, cost-effective long-term amendment for healthier, productive crops.

• Cons:

  • Slow acting

  • Requires soil testing to avoid over-application (which binds other nutrients)

  • Can be dusty unless pelletized

  • May require tillage for effective mixing.

Rotational Grazing

• Definition: A system where grazed paddocks are rested for a period, allowing for vegetation regrowth. Livestock are regularly moved to new paddocks.

• Benefits:

  • Improves soil health and carbon sequestration capacity

  • Enhances livestock herd health

  • Rest periods allow deeper root systems to grow, increasing plant nutrients and reducing soil erosion and water pollution.

Agroforestry

• Definition: A land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland.

• Pros:

  • Improved soil health

  • Biodiversity enhancement

  • Climate resilience (drought/flood/wind protection)

  • Diverse income streams (timber, fruit, crops)

  • Lower input costs (less fertilizer/pesticides).

• Cons:

  • High initial labor and costs

  • Long payback periods

  • Technical complexity

  • Potential for competition for resources (light, water, nutrients)

  • Market and policy hurdles.

Permaculture

• Definition: The conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems that mimic the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.

• Pros:

  • Sustainability

  • Reduced costs (water, fertilizer)

  • Biodiversity boosts and resilience

  • More labor-efficient in the long run.

• Cons:

  • Slow start with high initial effort and cost

  • Potential for pest and disease issues without chemical interventions

  • Scaling difficulties for mass production

  • Learning curve for new practitioners, making it less convenient for modern, fast-paced needs initially.

Summary Remarks

• Future of Food: Focus on sustainable agricultural practices that contribute to food security and environmental health.

• Required Knowledge for Sustainable Practices: Students should watch AP Classroom videos and be prepared to describe various sustainable practices in agriculture, strategies to improve soil fertility, and the key benefits of rotational grazing for maintaining soil health.

Topic 5.3: The Green Revolution

Essential Knowledge

• The Green Revolution initiated a transition to new agricultural strategies and practices aimed at increasing food production, yielding both positive and negative outcomes.

• Key strategies and methods introduced:

  • Mechanization

  • Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

  • Fertilization

  • Irrigation

  • Use of pesticides

Mechanization of Farming

• Advantages:

  • Increases profits and efficiency for farms.

• Disadvantages:

  • Heightened reliance on fossil fuels.

Historical Context

Hunter-Gatherers (15,000 Years Ago)

• Lifestyle:

  • Survived by collecting wild plants and hunting native animals.

  • Generally nomadic with a high infant mortality rate and short life span (30-40 years).

• Advanced groups:

  • Utilized more advanced tools and converted forests to grasslands.

  • Contributed to the extinction of some large animal species.

• Characteristics:

  • Small population, limited ecological footprint, technological limitations.

Agricultural Revolution (10,000 Years Ago)

• Transition details:

  • Shifted from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled communities.

  • Farmers began to provide surplus food beyond family needs.

• Consequences:

  • Formation of towns and villages leading to urbanization.

  • Increased life spans.

• Negative impacts:

  • Habitat destruction due to slash-and-burn techniques.

  • Soil erosion and overgrazing.

  • Pollution.

Bad Farming Practices

• Historical example: Dust Bowl (1934-1940)

  • Affected regions: Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas.

• Associated issues:

  • Soil erosion, desertification, water deficits, and loss of biodiversity linked to modern agriculture.

Industrial Revolution (1775)

• Key features:

  • Centralization of factories for mass production.

  • Enhanced agricultural technology led to urban population growth.

• Transition from renewable resources (wood, water) to nonrenewable fossil fuels.

• Consequences:

  • Increased air pollution and dangerous working conditions.

Green Revolution (1950-1970)

Description

• Focused on increasing yields per unit area of cropland through:

  • Developing and planting monocultures of key crops.

  • Utilizing extensive fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.

  • Increasing the intensity and frequency of cropping.

Modern Food Production Facts

• Food sources:

  • 15 plant & 8 animal species account for 90% of global food supply.

  • Wheat, rice, and corn contribute approximately 50% of caloric intake and are all annual crops.

  • 2/3 of the global population primarily consumes grains (rice, wheat, corn).

  • Fish and shellfish provide about 1% of the energy for the global population.

Food Production Types

Major Categories

1. Industrialized agriculture

2. Subsistence agriculture

   • Traditional

   • Intensive

Subsistence Agriculture

• Definition:

  • Farmers grow food primarily for themselves and their families.

• Characteristics:

  • Planting decisions are made based on family needs rather than market demands.

  • Intensive subsistence farming prevalent in India and China allows exchange of excess food for goods.

Industrial Agriculture

• Description:

  • Involves large-scale production using high inputs, including inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, inexpensive fossil fuels, and irrigation.

Agricultural Practices: Before and After

Evolution

• Examination of how farming methods have transformed over time, primarily influenced by the Agricultural Revolution and the Green Revolution.

The Green Revolution Defined

• Transition from small, family-operated farms to large-scale industrial agribusiness during the late 1950s and 1960s.

• Increased use of mechanization, GMOs, irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides.

• Outcomes:

  • Enhanced land efficiency, short-term profitability, and food supply.

  • Reduction in world hunger and increased carrying capacity for humans, particularly in India, Pakistan, and Mexico.

• Negative effects include soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and ground/surface water contamination.

Mechanization: Pros and Cons

Advantages

• Speed:

  • Machinery, such as tractors and combines, accelerates food collection.

• Yield and Profit Increase:

  • Higher crop yields result in increased profits.

Disadvantages

• Environmental Impact:

  • Machines rely on fossil fuels, leading to greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to climate change.

  • Soil erosion due to topsoil disturbance and soil compaction by heavy machines, leading to dry soils and erosion.

High-Yield Variety (HYV) Crops

• Definition:

  • Genetically modified crops that yield more per unit area.

• Examples:

  • Wheat with large seed heads, disease-resistant varieties, and shorter plants for wind resistance.

• Advantages:

  • Increased yield and food stability in famine-prone areas.

• Disadvantages:

  • Loss of biodiversity due to widespread cultivation of GMOs.

GMOs

Overview

• Gene modification allows crops to gain traits such as drought, pest, and disease resistance, maximizing productivity and profitability.

Risks

• Reduced genetic diversity may increase vulnerability to diseases or pests, threatening entire crops.

• Uses laboratory techniques to incorporate genes into plants.

• Example:

  • Bt Corn produces its own pesticide.

Synthetic Fertilizers

Shift in Agriculture

• Transition from organic (manure and compost) to synthetic fertilizers (man-made with ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate).

Benefits

• Increased crop yields and profits by enhancing nutrient provisions (NPK) essential for plant growth.

Drawbacks

• Overuse can result in runoff, leading to eutrophication in waterways.

• Production reliance on fossil fuels increases carbon dioxide emissions and contributes to climate change.

Irrigation

Innovations

• Development of irrigation systems improved access to underground and surface water for crops.

Benefits

• Expands agriculture to drier regions, increasing arable land and food production.

Risks

• Overuse of water resources can deplete aquifers faster than they can recharge.

• Overwatering can lead to decreased oxygen supply to roots and increased soil salinization, harming plant growth.

Pesticides

Background

• The Green Revolution resulted in a substantial rise in synthetic pesticide usage, which involves applying chemicals to crops to eliminate pests and weeds.

Benefits

• Increased yields and profits as fewer plants are lost to pests.

Drawbacks

• Pesticide runoff contaminates soil and waterways, affecting non-target species.

  • Example:

  • DDT caused thinning of eagle egg shells.

  • Atrazine resulted in intersex conditions and infertility in amphibians and fish.

Topic 5.4: Impact of Agricultural Practices

Monocropping

• Description:

  • Primarily used for crops like corn, soy, and wheat.

• Benefits:

  • High efficiency in harvesting and application of pesticides and fertilizers.

• Drawbacks:

  • Reduced biodiversity due to a singular crop type, often genetically identical, making it vulnerable to pests.

  • Soil erosion risk increases due to exposure when crops are harvested at once.

  • Decreased habitat diversity affecting local species, including pollinators and predators.

Tilling

• Definition:

  • The agricultural practice of turning over soil to facilitate planting and root growth.

• Benefits:

  • Eases planting and root establishment.

• Environmental Impact:

  • Disruption of soil structure and release of sequestered carbon as CO2.

  • Increased CO2 emissions from machinery operations relying on fossil fuels.

  • Increased erosion as root structure is disturbed, leading to loss of topsoil and nutrients over time.

  • Higher levels of particulate matter (PM) can cause respiratory issues in humans and animals, as well as increased turbidity of nearby water bodies.

Slash and Burn Farming

• Description:

  • A method where vegetation is cut down and burned to clear land for agriculture, mostly practiced in developing countries (e.g., Africa, Indonesian Islands, Central America (Brazil)).

• Benefits:

  • Clears land and returns nutrients to the soil for subsequent crops.

• Negative Consequences:

  • Habitat and biodiversity loss, reduced CO2 sequestration and air pollutant filtration due to tree removal.

  • Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions including CO2, CO, N2O, contributing to global warming.

  • Increased PM levels from burning, leading to respiratory issues such as asthma, as well as decreased albedo, raising temperatures in the area.

  • Unsustainability arises as nutrients are quickly depleted, necessitating additional slash-and-burn activities for future crops.

Synthetic (Inorganic) Fertilizers

• Definition:

  • Man-made chemicals designed to enhance plant growth.

• Advantages:

  • Provide rapid nutrient delivery and precise control over nutrient application, making them cost-effective for large-scale farming.

• Disadvantages:

  • No organic matter is returned to the soil, leading to decreased water retention and a lack of soil decomposers.

  • Risk of leaching, where excess nutrients (nitrates & phosphates) are washed into ground and surface waters, causing drinking water contamination and eutrophication, which leads to harmful algal blooms.

Conclusion for Topic 5.4

• Review Reminder:

  • Watch all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.4 from today’s lesson.

  • Make sure to add to your notes as you read and watch the videos.

• Key Practices to Highlight:

  • Monocropping

  • Tilling

  • Slash-and-burn farming

  • Use of synthetic / inorganic fertilizers

Topic 5.5 - Irrigation Methods

Learning Intention

• Goal: Understand different methods used to irrigate agricultural land.

Essential Knowledge

• Definition of Irrigation: Irrigation refers to the artificial application of water to soil or land to assist in the growing of crops.

• Significance of Irrigation: It represents the largest human use of freshwater, constituting approximately 70% of total freshwater usage globally.

• Types of Irrigation Systems: There are several recognized methods of irrigation including:

  • Drip Irrigation

  • Flood Irrigation

  • Furrow Irrigation

  • Spray Irrigation

Detailed Examination of Irrigation Methods

1. Spray Irrigation

• Also Known As: Sprinkler irrigation.

• Applications: Widely used for watering lawns, parks, golf courses, and large agricultural areas growing crops such as corn and soybeans.

• Advantages:

  • Covers large, uneven areas effectively.

  • Saves labor/time through automation and offers adaptability for various soil types and crop conditions.

  • Allows for the potential application of fertilizers through a method known as fertigation.

• Disadvantages:

  • High water loss due to evaporation and wind

  • Elevated energy and installation costs.

  • Can foster disease and weeds because of wet foliage.

  • Uneven water distribution may occur in windy or hot conditions, often making it less efficient compared to drip systems or center pivots for large-scale farms.

2. Drip Irrigation

• Applications: Commonly utilized in agriculture for high-value crops (such as orchards and vineyards) and in landscaping. Ideal for dry climates and sloped areas.

• Mechanism: Water is delivered directly to the plant roots, significantly reducing waste from evaporation and runoff.

• Advantages:

  • Achieves water savings of 90%+ efficiency.

  • Promotes better crop yields and reduces soil erosion.

  • Delivers precise nutrients directly to the roots.

• Disadvantages:

  • High initial setup costs and complexity.

  • Risk of clogging from unfiltered water.

  • Labor-intensive installation and maintenance requirements (filters, tubing).

  • Demands careful design considerations based on different crops and soil types.

3. Furrow Irrigation

• Applications: Typically employed for row crops like corn, cotton, potatoes, and soybeans; especially effective on gently sloping land (less than 0.75%-1% grade).

• Mechanism: Water flows down channels (furrows) between crop rows, providing a cost-effective solution, particularly in developing regions.

• Advantages:

  • Maintains dry plant bases (avoiding "wet feet" stress).

  • Facilitates gravity-driven water movement, reducing the need for mechanization.

• Disadvantages:

  • Less precise than drip irrigation; potential for runoff issues.

  • Often relies on flood irrigation principles, which can potentially waste water and cause less efficient results compared to newer techniques.

4. Flood Irrigation

• Applications: Utilized for crops needing standing water, such as rice, and row crops like corn and cotton.

• Mechanism: Involves flooding the entire field surface, utilizing gravity to distribute water.

• Advantages:

  • Low setup and operational costs, suitable for areas with abundant water.

  • Promotes deep root penetration through thorough soil wetting.

• Disadvantages:

  • High inefficiency due to evaporation and runoff; significant water waste.

  • Increased risks of soil erosion and salinization.

  • Heavy labor required for land preparation and maintenance.

Comparison of Irrigation Methods

• Efficiency: Drip irrigation is the most efficient method, while flood irrigation tends to waste the most water.

• Cost: Initial costs are lowest for flood and furrow methods, while drip and spray irrigation require greater investment.

• Suitability: Drip irrigation excels in dry climates and for specialized crops; flood irrigation is more general-purpose for water-abundant regions.

Irrigation Problems

1. Salinization

• Definition: Salinization refers to the buildup of salts in soil, which often occurs in dry climates where irrigation is common.

• Impacts: Leads to water stress in plants, nutrient imbalances, and reduced agricultural yields. It affects nearly half of global irrigated land.

• Contributing Factors:

  • Poor drainage and inefficient irrigation methods (like furrow).

  • Utilizing water sources high in salt content exacerbates the issue.

• Solutions: Effective water management, utilizing salt-tolerant crops, and soil amendments (e.g., biochar).

2. Saltwater Intrusion

• Definition: Saltwater intrusion occurs when over-extraction of freshwater lowers water tables, allowing seawater to infiltrate aquifers.

• Consequences: Deteriorates the quality of drinking and irrigation water, negatively impacting agriculture and coastal ecosystems.

• Worsening Factors: Accelerated by sea-level rise and can cause yield reductions in crops like corn and soybeans.

• Management Strategies: Implementing soil amendments like gypsum, cultivating salt-tolerant crops, and enhancing freshwater management practices.

3. Zone of Depletion

• Definition: Refers to the regions where excessive groundwater pumping leads to lowered water tables, creating a cone of depression that depletes aquifers.

• Effects: Increases pumping costs, degrades local ecosystems, and can lead to land subsidence.

• Management: Establishing Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) thresholds and monitoring aquifer levels to ensure water sustainability.

Case Study: Aquifer Depletion

• Ogallala Aquifer: Facing severe depletion due to over-extraction for agricultural irrigation in states like Kansas, Texas, and Oklahoma.

• Challenges: The extraction rate vastly exceeds the natural recharge rate, leading to potential collapse of aquifer structures and increasing concerns regarding water quality.

• Similar Issues: The Colorado River and the Aral Sea also showcase similar patterns of unsustainable resource use in agriculture.

Conclusion

• Study Reminders:

  • Watch all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.5.

  • Update your notes and ensure you can describe the pros and cons of each irrigation method: Flood, Furrow, Drip, Spray.

Topic 5.6 - Pest Control

Learning Intention

• Describe agricultural practices that lead to environmental damage.

Pesticides

• Definition: Substances employed to control various types of pests, which include both plant and animal organisms.

• Four common categories of pesticides:

  • Herbicides

  • Fungicides

  • Rodenticides

  • Insecticides

Herbicides

• Definition: Pesticides specifically aimed at controlling unwanted vegetation, including grasses and weeds.

• Classification of herbicides:

  • Selectivity: determines whether they target specific weeds or all plants.

  • Selective herbicides: Target specific types of weeds.

  • Non-selective herbicides: Eliminate all plant life they contact.

    • Example: Traditional Roundup products are noted as non-selective herbicides due to their active ingredient, glyphosate, which kills all contacted plants.

  • Timing of Application:

  • Pre-emergent: Applied before weeds germinate.

  • Post-emergent: Applied after weeds have emerged.

  • Mechanism of Action:

  • Systemic: Absorbed by plants and moved throughout the plant system.

  • Contact: Kill weeds upon direct contact.

Fungicides

• Definition: Pesticides that target and combat fungal diseases in plants.

• Use-cases include:

  • Preventing or controlling invasive fungal diseases such as rusts, mildews, and blights that may damage crops and reduce yield.

  • Protecting seeds, which promotes their growth into healthy mature plants.

  • Assuring crops achieve maximum yield and quality potential.

  • Safeguarding ornamental plants and turf from diseases.

Rodenticides

• Definition: Pesticides utilized in agriculture to manage rodent pests including rats, mice, voles, and gophers that can damage crops, transmit diseases, and spoil feed.

• Types of rodenticides:

  • Anticoagulant rodenticides: Interfere with blood clotting.

  • Non-anticoagulant rodenticides: Operate through other mechanisms.

• Formulations: Commonly presented in forms such as baits, pellets, pastes, or grains.

• Regulation: Their use is subject to regulations to minimize risks to non-target animals.

• Major downside: The use of rodenticides can inadvertently result in the death of non-target species within the food chain.

Insecticides

• Definition: Pesticides specifically formulated to eliminate insects.

• Historical Context:

  • DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was widely utilized but resulted in severe issues concerning biomagnification; banned in the U.S. in 1972, but remains in use in certain developing countries.

• Mechanism of Action: Common insecticides target the nervous systems of insects.

• Biological Insecticides: Also referred to as biopesticides, are derived from natural materials encompassing plants, bacteria, fungi, or minerals for pest control.

  • General benefits include lower toxicity levels and selective targeting, often affecting only the intended pest and closely related organisms.

• GMOs: Certain genetically modified organisms incorporate plant-protectants that function as their insecticide.

Weighing the Impacts of Pesticides

• Benefits:

  • They contribute positively to food security by ensuring a reliable and healthy food supply.

  • Serve protective roles against diseases such as Malaria and Lyme Disease through targeting relevant pests.

  • Capable of addressing issues with parasitic or invasive species effectively.

• Drawbacks:

  • Highly toxic to non-target species including birds, bees, mammals, and aquatic organisms.

  • Potential sources of soil and water pollution.

  • Associated with health issues such as cancer, birth defects, and various neurological problems.

  • Economic concerns arise due to the costs associated with excessive or abundant applications.

  • Pests can develop resistance, resulting in heightened usage and escalated costs.

Development of Pesticide Resistance

• Conceptual Diagram:

  • Before pesticide application: Presence of pests before the use of pesticides.

  • After pesticide application: The initial impact of pesticides on pest populations.

  • Later generations: Evolution of pest resistance with successive applications of pesticides, leading to reduced efficacy.

Conclusion and Next Steps

• Topic 5.6 instructional actions include:

  • View all AP Classroom Videos for Topic 5.6 from the current lesson.

  • Enhance your notes with observations from readings and video content.

  • Key focus areas to consider:

  • Benefits and drawbacks of various pest control methods, covering:

    • Pesticides

    • Herbicides

    • Fungicides

    • Rodenticides

    • Insecticides

5.14 Notes

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Overview of IPM

• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a comprehensive approach aimed at controlling pest species while minimizing harm to the environment, wildlife, and human health.

  • It combines various methods of pest control, including biological, physical, and limited chemical strategies.

  • IPM is complex and can be costly; however, its advantages include reduced risks associated with pesticide use.

Essential Knowledge

• Definition: Integrated Pest Management (IPM) refers to a combination of pest control techniques designed to effectively manage pest populations while minimizing environmental disruption.

• Methods Included in IPM:

  • Biocontrol: Utilizing natural predators to control pest populations.

  • Intercropping: Growing two or more crops in proximity to improve pest control.

  • Crop Rotation: Alternating the types of crops grown to disrupt pest life cycles.

What is IPM?

• IPM is a science-based strategy that incorporates multiple techniques to study and manage pest relationships with their environment.

• Key IPM Tools:

  • Altering surroundings to deter pests.

  • Introducing beneficial insects or organisms.

  • Growing pest-resistant plant varieties.

  • Disrupting pest development and behaviors.

  • Employing pesticides as necessary.

Steps in IPM Process

1. Prevent

   • Implement practices such as using resistant plants, early planting, crop rotation, installing barriers, maintaining sanitation, and sealing building cracks to prevent pest problems.

2. Identify/Monitor

   • Determine the causative pest agent and its population abundance.

   • Assistance can be obtained from local extension agents to identify the pest accurately.

3. Evaluate

   • Analyze monitoring results to determine:

     • Is the pest causing significant damage?

     • Is intervention necessary?

   • If pest numbers approach economic thresholds, actions may be warranted.

4. Action

   • Utilize multiple tactics to keep pests below economically damaging levels.

   • Select preventive and curative treatments carefully to avoid over-reliance on one method, enhancing the success rate of IPM.

5. Monitor

   • Continuously observe pest population trends; if pest numbers drop, further treatment may not be required. If populations exceed action thresholds, alternative tools must be employed.

Where Can You Practice IPM?

• Buildings and Homes:

  • Inspect regularly and identify pests; implement preventive measures to keep pests out.

  • Maintain sanitation to deprive pests of food and water sources; use traps or low-risk pesticides when necessary.

• Farms:

  • Regularly inspect for pests and damage; use pest-resistant plant varieties, promote beneficial insects, and time planting to mitigate pest impact.

  • If needed, apply low-risk pesticides.

• Managed Natural Systems:

  • Identify pests while choosing management strategies that pose minimal risk to pollinators, humans, and pets.

Companion Planting to Repel Pests

• Companion planting employs natural methods of pest management rather than solely relying on chemical pesticides.

  • Definition: Intentionally planting specific species near crops to deter pests through natural scents or to attract natural predators.

  • Examples of Natural Pest Control:

  • Strong scents from marigolds and basil can repel pests, while certain plants can attract beneficial insects like ladybugs.

  • Companion planting is one tactic within a broader IPM framework, which includes monitoring pest occurrences, understanding pest ecology, and utilizing biological controls, reserving chemicals for last-resort applications.

Important Reminders

• Watch all AP Classroom videos for Topic 5.14 to further expand knowledge on Integrated Pest Management.

• Take notes and engage with concepts such as:

  • Basics of IPM

  • Benefits and challenges associated with IPM

  • Roles of biocontrol, crop rotation, and intercropping in minimizing environmental disruptions and threats to human health.

5.15 notes 

Sustainable Agriculture

Learning Intention

• Describe sustainable agricultural and food production practices.

Essential Knowledge

• Goal of Soil Conservation: Prevent soil erosion.

• Methods of Soil Conservation:

  • Contour plowing

  • Windbreaks

  • Perennial crops

  • Terracing

  • No-till agriculture

  • Strip cropping

• Strategies to Improve Soil Fertility:

  • Crop rotation

  • Addition of green manure

  • Addition of limestone

• Rotational Grazing: Regularly rotate livestock between different pastures to avoid overgrazing in a particular area.

Soil Conservation

• Definition: An agricultural technique aimed at minimal erosion and prevention of soil damage, as well as the restoration of damaged soil.

• Fact: Topsoil erodes 10 times faster than it forms in the U.S., emphasizing the need for preservation.

Contour Plowing

• Definition: Plowing fields with the shape of the land, or parallel to natural slopes.

• Purpose: Prevent erosion, retain nutrients, soil moisture, and decomposers in the soil.

• Pros:

  • Reduced soil erosion

  • Improved water infiltration

  • Increased crop yields due to better moisture and nutrient retention.

• Cons:

  • Increased costs for labor and equipment

  • Potential for waterlogging

  • May be less efficient or suitable for certain crops or land types.

Terracing

• Definition: Building flat, level steps or platforms into hillsides or slopes.

• Purpose: Prevent soil erosion.

• Pros:

  • Reduces soil erosion

  • Conserves water

  • Boosts crop yields

  • Improves water quality by trapping sediment.

• Cons:

  • High initial construction costs

  • Significant labor or machinery needs

  • Potential for waterlogging or nutrient leaching if mismanaged.

  • Landscape disturbance requiring constant upkeep to avoid catastrophic failure like gully erosion or landslides.

Perennial Crops

• Definition: Plants that return year after year, harvested at different times. The whole plant is not removed, allowing longer roots to grow.

• Pros:

  • Reduced labor and lower long-term costs

  • Improved soil health (less erosion, more microbes)

  • Improved biodiversity and climate resilience due to deeper roots and less tilling

  • Potential savings on water and fertilizer costs.

• Cons:

  • Higher initial investment

  • Slower establishment with less yield in first few years

  • Challenges with pest and disease management without crop rotation

  • Requires careful planning for weed and pest control as they stay planted.

Windbreaks & Buffers

• Definition: Planting rows of trees to reduce wind erosion and absorb runoff.

• Uses: Trees can also provide firewood or fruit.

• Pros:

  • Reduced soil erosion

  • Increased crop and livestock yields

  • Energy savings

  • Enhanced wildlife habitat.

• Cons:

  • Land loss

  • Competition for resources (water, nutrients, light) with nearby crops

  • Potential insect and disease issues

  • Need for careful design to avoid snow drift problems and shading, requiring thorough planning for success.

No-Till Agriculture

• Definition: Leaving plant residue in the soil instead of tilling, using a drill to plant seeds in unturned soil.

• Pros:

  • Adds organic matter, nutrients, and moisture

  • Anchors soil in place which reduces erosion

  • Saves fuel and labor

  • Improves soil health (moisture, organic matter, structure, microbes)

  • Sequesters carbon

  • Can increase yields over time.

• Cons:

  • Requires more herbicides initially

  • Needs good residue management (can appear messy, susceptible to blowing away)

  • May delay spring planting on wet soils

  • Takes time for soil adjustments, posing challenges for new adopters.

Intercropping / Strip Cropping

• Definition: Different crops are sown in alternate strips to prevent soil erosion.

• Pros:

  • Boosts yields and soil health

  • Enhances pest control and risk management

  • Improves resource use (light, water, nutrients)

  • Reduces erosion.

• Cons:

  • Complexity requiring expert knowledge

  • Challenges in managing different growth cycles

  • Increased labor

  • Potential competition for resources, complicating mechanized farming.

Methods to Improve Soil Fertility

Crop Rotation

• Definition: Growing different crops in the same field each year to prevent depletion of nutrients from the soil.

• Pros:

  • Boosts soil health

  • Increases fertility (especially nitrogen)

  • Reduces pests, diseases, and weeds

  • Decreases reliance on chemicals

  • Increases water retention and yields.

• Cons:

  • Requires more planning and knowledge

  • May need specific machinery

  • Financial risks associated with different seed varieties

  • Less suited for certain perennial crops

  • Greater management effort needed.

Green Manure (Cover Crops)

• Definition: Planting legumes or other cover crops in the off-season or between harvests (e.g., soybeans, peanuts). Leave remains to restore nutrients used by other crops in that same field.

• Pros:

  • Prevents erosion

  • Improves soil health (organic matter, structure, nutrients)

  • Fixes nitrogen (in legumes)

  • Recycles nutrients and feeds soil microbes

  • Suppresses weeds and manages water usage.

• Cons:

  • Added costs (for seed, labor)

  • Potential competition for water with cash crops

  • Management challenges in planting and termination

  • Risk of becoming weeds if mismanaged, requiring careful planning.

Addition of Crushed Limestone

• What: Using crushed limestone (aglime) in farming.

• Pros:

  • Neutralizes acidic soil (pH correction)

  • Boosts nutrient availability (calcium, magnesium)

  • Improves soil structure (drainage, aeration, less crusting)

  • Reduces toxic elements (aluminum, manganese)

  • Benefits soil microbes, cost-effective long-term amendment for healthier, productive crops.

• Cons:

  • Slow acting

  • Requires soil testing to avoid over-application (which binds other nutrients)

  • Can be dusty unless pelletized

  • May require tillage for effective mixing.

Rotational Grazing

• Definition: A system where grazed paddocks are rested for a period, allowing for vegetation regrowth. Livestock are regularly moved to new paddocks.

• Benefits:

  • Improves soil health and carbon sequestration capacity

  • Enhances livestock herd health

  • Rest periods allow deeper root systems to grow, increasing plant nutrients and reducing soil erosion and water pollution.

Agroforestry

• Definition: A land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland.

• Pros:

  • Improved soil health

  • Biodiversity enhancement

  • Climate resilience (drought/flood/wind protection)

  • Diverse income streams (timber, fruit, crops)

  • Lower input costs (less fertilizer/pesticides).

• Cons:

  • High initial labor and costs

  • Long payback periods

  • Technical complexity

  • Potential for competition for resources (light, water, nutrients)

  • Market and policy hurdles.

Permaculture

• Definition: The conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems that mimic the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.

• Pros:

  • Sustainability

  • Reduced costs (water, fertilizer)

  • Biodiversity boosts and resilience

  • More labor-efficient in the long run.

• Cons:

  • Slow start with high initial effort and cost

  • Potential for pest and disease issues without chemical interventions

  • Scaling difficulties for mass production

  • Learning curve for new practitioners, making it less convenient for modern, fast-paced needs initially.