Cognitive Psychology Vocabulary
Cross-Cutting Themes in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on the internal thinking mechanisms of the mind.
Three cross-cutting themes:
Brain/neurobiology: Understanding the physical basis of cognition.
Modeling: Building working models to replicate and understand phenomena, including computer simulations.
World-relevance: Applying cognitive psychology to real-world problems and recognizing its connections to other fields.
History in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct field in the 20th century, gaining prominence in the 19th century.
Before this, philosophy was the primary mode of inquiry.
Thales (625-545 BC)
Of Miletus, located in ancient Greece (present-day Turkey).
A philosopher who pondered the fundamental nature of things.
Predicted a solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC by observing patterns.
Predicted a successful olive harvest and invested in olive presses, demonstrating the practical application of his wisdom.
Fell into a well while stargazing (as told by Plato).
Posited the concept of physis, the fundamental substance of which everything is made.
This idea foreshadows the concept of atoms.
Thales believed water was the physis.
His student, Anaximander, suggested it was apeiron (boundless primordial mass).
Thales' ideas initiated a long quest to identify the fundamental building blocks of existence.
Pertinence to the development of science:
The unification of understanding is a core goal of scientific endeavor.
The critical tradition was initiated.
Ideas are proposed, discussed, and critically evaluated; the best survive.
Thales encouraged his students, Anaximander and Anaximenes, to disagree with him.
This concept foreshadows Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest.
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Of Athens, Greece.
Known as the "Gadfly" of Athens, drawing attention to important issues and questioning prevailing ideas.
Central figure in the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon.
Animated the critical tradition through the Socratic Method:
Answering a question with another question, prompting people to discover contradictions in their own ideas.
Executed by the state of Athens for "impiety" and "corrupting the youth."
Faced death with composure, drinking hemlock in the presence of his students.
Plato
A student of Socrates (also of Athens).
Developed the Theory of Pure Forms or Essences, suggesting that everything has an ideal version.
All actual cats are imperfect copies of an ideal cat.
Initially believed mathematics was key to understanding these pure forms.
A sign over the door to his school read: "Let nobody unversed in geometry enter."
Argued that mathematics possesses an ideal character.
A drawn triangle is not a perfect triangle and does not perfectly represent the Pythagorean theorem.
Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Individuals are trapped in a cave, seeing only shadows cast on the wall.
One person escapes and sees the real world, including sunlight and actual objects.
The shadows represent our perceptions, which are imperfect representations of reality.
We must look deeper to understand the true nature of things (introspection).
This viewpoint is known as rationalism.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
A student of Plato (also of Athens).
His father was a physician, and he likely received early medical training.
Classified many things, proposing the first taxonomic hierarchy.
Animals:
Blooded (vertebrates) - live-birth bearing creatures. Internal skeleton
Bloodless (invertebrates) - egg layers.
Early theory of sensation:
Each sense detects a particular kind of movement in the environment.
Seeing results from the movement of light.
Hearing results from the movement of air.
Touch and taste result from the movement of flesh.
This foreshadows a physiological understanding of the nervous system.
Theory of universals:
Like Plato, Aristotle acknowledged universal truths or "essences."
Unlike Plato, he believed that each instance of a type possessed the universal property associated with that type (e.g., "cat-ness" is physically inside each cat).
Empiricism:
Discovering truth by generalizing across observed causes in the world (trusting the senses).
Summary of Viewpoints
Rationalism:
Essential, perfect truths exist.
Logical introspection (deduction) is the best way to know them.
The sensory world is untrustworthy.
Empiricism:
Discover truth through the senses.
Discover abstractions by observing many instances (induction).
The Age of Enlightenment (17th and 18th Centuries in Europe)
Also known as the Age of Reason.
Foundation of modern civilization.
Descartes (1596-1650)
A rationalist from France.
Mistrustful of the senses.
Example: The dot on the letter "i" can be mistaken for an "L".
"Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am):
Through deep doubt, he realized that the act of doubting proved his existence.
Human reason is unique and provides more insight than the senses alone.
Lived wildly, gambling, dancing, and fighting.
Dualism: The belief in a nonphysical mind and a physical body.
An influential concept that has persisted.
The opposite of dualism is generally "monism" (only one kind) or "pluralism" (many kinds).
Monism aligns well with science, suggesting only the physical world exists.
The Notion of "Model" in Cognitive Psychology
A hydraulic mechanical statue in the royal gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye served as a model for Descartes' understanding of the nervous system.
Stepping on a place in the path and the statue moves – Descartes model of nervous system.
He said this could be how our minds work. Water moves from one area (foot) which causes it to do something else (move it away).
A model is a mechanistic approximation of something real, at some level, we fully understand cause and e ect.
When a foot is near fire, the brain can control the actions of the body – like the statue – the mind will pull the foot away.
Hume (1711-1776)
From Scotland.
One of the British Empiricists.
Other major ones:
John Locke (tabula rasa - "blank slate").
George Berkley (Esse Est percipi - "to be is to be perceived").
Believed sensory experience provides the elements of knowledge (smell, color, movement, extension in space).
Sought to understand the laws of association between ideas, proposing association by contiguity (togetherness) in space and time.
Example: Thunder and lightning; because lightning precedes thunder, we come to believe that it causes thunder.
Note: atmospheric science today supports this interpretation for the case of lightning and thunder.
Causality is a subjective joining of events.
Example: The rooster crowing causes the sun to rise (a false perception of causality).
Key Concepts: Questions
Rationalism (Plato, Descartes).
Empiricism (Aristotle, Hume).
Critical tradition: Building ideas upon ideas, winnowing out the dubious ones.
Why is the distinction between rationalism and empiricism so important?
The method of throwing many ideas into a soup and letting the best ones survive has come up in the Critical Tradition, in democratic political systems, and in Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (relevant to the field of cognition).
Sensation and Perception
Sensation: The experience of having sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, nose, tongue) stimulated by the environment.
Perception: The act of interpreting sensations as indicating familiar objects or situations.
Difficult to interpret images represent sensation without perception.
Object Recognition
When we see (touch, hear, smell, or taste) something, we often know what it is; we can name it, and we can appropriately interact with it (even if we’ve never encountered exactly that particular instance before).
Example: walking home and an unfamiliar dog comes out; you'd be scared given previous experience with dogs.
Object Recognition Hypothesis 1: Template Matching
The mind is like a file cabinet; to recognize an object, one searches for a matching template.
Real-life examples:
Barcodes: The combination of thick and thin lines corresponds with di erent numbers – numbers are indexed to the product. Pick up on the pattern of lines and it has a template of lines for every item it supposes to.
Problems with the Template Matching Hypothesis
Computational intractability:
There are too many images (more than the number of atoms in the universe).
It would be impossible to store them all independently in one physical brain.
Note: variation in size, color, viewpoint, style, detailed characteristics, and di erent angles.
Human generalization ability:
Human beings are good at making predictions about new objects which they have never heard of or seen before (ex. The liger).
Under the template matching model, one can always add new templates, but since the new template is independent of all the others, the model gives no basis for recognizing a new object as being related to any previously known object.
Improving the Model: Mental Rotation
First tack: address the issue of point of view.
Shepard and Metzler 1971; cooper and Shepard 1973.
Hypothesis: people can rotate images "in their heads".
Refined hypothesis: people rotate images at a constant rate in their heads.
Method: show people image pairs exhibiting various degrees of rotation. Measure reaction times (RT’s) to answer "same" or "di erent".
Imagine what it would look like if you twist it around.
The object recognition system need not to store an image of every object in every position.
Insight from mental rotation experiments regarding one of the problems with the template model: it will su ce to store just one image of each object (its “canonical image”) and rely on human mental rotation ability to line specific, observed views up with the canonical image.
Gestalt Psychology
Referencing group of psychological thinkers who notice the power of form in visual stimuli.
How does object recognition work?
We don't notice all the little objects that are making up the space shuttle.
German word for conciseness.
We order our experience in a way that is maximally simple.
Choose the simplest possible way to make sense of something.
Principle of similarity: the mind groups entities into totalities based on similarity of the parts group like things together as one group.
Principle of closure: the mind completes figures to increase regularity.
Principle of proximity: elements that are close together tend to be grouped together.
Our minds seem to put parts together to see wholes.
Objects Recognition Continued: The Recognition by Components Model (“RBC”)
Idea: make a new model of how the mind recognizes objects that work by putting parts together.
(the hope is that this will improve on the template matching model).
Geons
Geometric building blocks of our perceptions.
Put together two geons to make a flashlight.
This is how you make objects – a way to start thinking about how the mind makes objects.
36 geons – 100 relations (di erent possibilities) - makes 154 million di erent possible objects.
Processing procedure of the recognition by components (RBC)
Follow edges.
Follow edges to find juncture points.
Recognize geons (list of geons in head).
Recognize objects (list of objects head).
Note: mental rotation is used at least in steps 3 and 4.
Experimental Evidence for RBC
Method:
Show a picture, remove it, show its complement, measure reaction time to name picture.
A is recognized faster than B series.
Key idea: the geon issue.
In image A even though it is a complete, there is still something for every geon in the picture (allows your mind to get going on finding all the geons to complete the picture).
In the b image, you get some geons fully but missing full geons completely – your mind has to build them from scratch after the second picture.
This is an example if priming paradigm, i.e. an experiment in which mental preparing plays a role.
Mental priming refers to the situation in which a previous experience prepares the mind for a subsequent experience which occurs a short time later.
Results
When pictures shared geons (condition A) priming was strong (short reaction times or RT).
When the pictures did not share geons, (condition B) priming was weak (long RTs).
Interpretation (according to Biederman and Cooper).
Consider, for comparison, an elaborated template matching model that seeks a template that best-matches the image in the experiment.
Note: this model predicts equal processing times for conditions A and B.
By contrast, RBC predicts that condition A will be faster than condition B because the model can get through step 3 (recognize geons) for all geons in Condition A after the 1st picture, but only for a proper subset of the geons in condition B.
Relationship to Rationalism and Empiricism
Note relation to rationalism:
Geons and objects are like Plato's ideal forms.
Note relation to empiricism:
Abstract ideas (e.g. object classification) are build out of sensory impressions.
Thus: RBC theory may help relate the rationalist and empiricist perspectives.
Hierarchies
Always one thing at the top that branches o to things below, repeated again and again.
Branching thing that is the fundamental structure of hierarchies.
Could branch to more than 2 things – doesn't matter how many it just needs to branch, and it will count as a hierarchy.
Dividing subbranches up.
Not saying these are types of things, but you can think of something as being built from smaller parts.
Taxonomic (Type-Based) Hierarchies
Constituency (or “Part-Whole”) Hierarchies
RBC uses the part whole kind of hierarchy.
Non-Visual Perception
We have been building an elaborate theory about how we interpret the world around us; it purports to relate sensory experience to recognition of objects.
But we have focused primarily on the visual sense. Might this be misleading us?
Do we also recognize objects via other senses?
Does the process work the same way?
Maybe there is something we could call cognition in general.
Cognition would mean mental understanding of the world.
And the di erent senses are all feeding in and giving cognition, and the same sort of thing that's going on in our perception of vision.
Proprioception – awareness of our body and our surroundings (kinesthetic).
Vestibular: balance through your inner ear – cavity that has fluid and that fluid moves around based on your orientation.
Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Object Recognition
Top-down object recognition:
Information about what would make sense, what would be expected in the world (using your preexisting knowledge).
Bottom-up object recognition:
Information comes directly from the stimulus.
Steps 3 and 4 wont recognize these geons and objects if you just look at it.
Top-down must be interactive with the bottom up at some times.
Recall RBC
Find edges – bottom up.
Find juncture points – bottom up.
Identity best-fitting genos – top down.
Identify best-fitting objects – top down.
Note: this is way of letting bottom-up and top-down info flexibility interact.
The Lesson
People seem to use a combination of top-down and bottom-up information in visual object recognition.
When people talk about "the influence of context" on perception, they are often talking about top-down influences.
In visual perceptions, the mind strikes a special balance between the influence of top-down and bottom up (both are important, the two work together). This principle is central to visual perception. Moreover, evidence suggests that the same principle applies to other senses (e.g. audiation, olfaction etc.) in other words, for this case, at least the claim that there is a general mental facility called cognition seems justified.
Cutaneous Senses (Touch)
Organ: skin.
Temperature.
Pain.
Touch texture.
Could there be bottom-up vs top down in touch.
Bottom up: more prominent, brain is confused.
Top-down; know what's happening but your sensing.
Olfaction (Smell)
Context-sensitivity in olfaction:
Engen (1972): odor stimuli near the threshold of perception: colored stimuli caused people to falsely report presence of odor.
Zellner and Kautz (1990): more intense taste reports when odorant is appropriately colored.
e.g. clear vs yellow lemon-flavored liquid; e.g. clear vs green mint flavored liquid.
Main Point
Blind people conceptualize the physical world very similarly to the way sighted people do, even in cases that seem, at first glance, to depend on visual perception.
This is consistent with the thesis that there is a core mental capacity (cognition that is independent of modality).
Background: Letter and Word Recognition
Letters and words written on a page are special kinds of objects which people easily recognize.
Their physical structure (i.e. various horizontal, vertical, diagonal, and curved lines), is relatively simple.
Idea: take up the issue of "best fitting genos, objects" in this domain and try to build a working model.
Think of words and letters as a certain set of segments.
Problems
No curves in this model.
A and H in block letters would be shouting the same volume – H is a subset of A – the thing wouldn't be able to tell A and H apart.
Augmented Pandemonium
The thing should be discouraged by the top part of the A that the H doesn't have.
Neurons in the brain have both excitatory and inhibitory connections (action potentials).
Excitatory (arrow = positive).
Inhibitory (dot = negative).
Noise in statistics and science means small random variation of the values; can't get it perfect; can't get the height of the tree perfectly.
Model is randomly choosing one – S or 5.
What do to about this: we would add another layer to the pandemonium.
Challenges pandemonium, adding even more to it.
Word Superiority Effect
Method: three conditions.
BOOK (chose whether the last letter is K or T).
NXQK (choose whether the last letter is a K or a T).
---K (choose whether the last letter is a K or T).
They are measuring reaction time.
Book had the fastest.
Doesn't pay attention to order to letters – it will fail in detecting di erent words that have the same letters (part, trap).
The Interactive Activation Model (New Model)
Has to keep track or order.
Make multiple pandemonium so that the words with the same letters are in di erent pandemonium.
So we can code what the letter is but also the order.
The inhibitory connections between words show that the best word is turned on, and the rest are turned o .
Does this predict word superiority e ect?
No.
The brian has sensory input coming in and going up to higher levels of our brain, but also has connections that are called feedback connections that go from high levels to low levels.
The way the information and connections work – not any cross referencing between letters in di erent positions. All information is going up which means that there is no way for a letter in a position to get information about another letter in another position.
There would have to be arrows pointing across to di erent ones – but there aren't; Arrows at both ends.
*This is saying that if there is a word above that's starting to get activated – sends signals back down to words that are supporting it.
This makes it able to predict word superiority e ect.
BOOK vs NXQK. Both cases will recognize K, but BOOK will be recognized k in BOOK faster because we have already been familiarized with BOOK.
Feedback in systems like this is significant because with information flowing back – it cycles through going up and back up and back that opens universes of possibilities for the way these systems can behave.
If there's no feedback – you only react.
With feedback you can reflect.
Attention
How to stay clear of the homunculus problem in explaining attentional selection.
Make it so the mind is focused on one thing, but the other information is coming from another source.
The cocktail party.
Experiment: Dichotic Listening with Relevant Probes
Method: Dichotic listening with shadowing.
Some probes relevant (e.g. person's name).
Some probes irrelevant (random words).
People failed to detect an irrelevant word even though it was presented 35 times.
Selective filters – core part / most important part of model.
Broadbent's Selective Filter Model
Moray had that classic experiment where he threw a bunch of words repeated many times and put their names with then.
People were able to notice their name when they weren't focusing on it.
There is still complex functioning.
Loudness of speech, speed of talking, women vs man talking (high pitched vs low pitched) are all detectable on the basis of low-level properties.
Detecting your name or recognizing a particular work required sensitivity to high level properties.
(Broadbent's model doesn't predict the name of Morays results.
Treisman Attenuation Model
Broadbent says that we are only monitoring low level significance in the other ear.
But this experiment shows it is high level monitoring because they were able to piece together the story.
Says unattended channels are not limited to only low-level information.
We can get meaningful information from stu we aren't paying attention to.
Ability to attend to something meaningful (your name).
Still has the idea of high and low level information (based on physical properties – pitch and tone).
Added attenuating; degree of how prominent things are.
If very prominent – boosts activation – boost is due to relevance – how relevant is that thing.
If highly relevant, it is boosted in your mind and your mind can pick up on it (makes sense for the name case).
What is the threshold – quantify relevance.
How do we say what counts as relevance?
Relevance is a good idea – but su ers from issue where it is not clearly defined.
Homunculus problem.
If you use relevance as a guided principle of the model – its not doing much because you don't know how relevant something would be to you and others.
Divided Attention
Doing multiple things at once can be di cult.
Solve algebra problems while reading a novela book while talking to someone about a di erent topic, Hum a corelli sonata while listening to house musiceasy ones.
Listening to music while driving, chew gum while walking, pet your dog while talking to your rined.
Note: in these easy cases, two di erent types of tasks are involved).
Question? - What is the di erence between the hard ones and the easy ones?
Secondary and primary tasks – in hard ones – both are primary tasks while instead listening to music is secondary and doing homework is primary.
One is automatic.
Passive and active – in active activities there are requirements to pay attention to it while passive doesn't.
Driving and talking to someone – both are sophisticated things to do – mind has to do a lot for both driving and talking – switching attention constantly.
Limited Resource Model
There is only so much your mind can handle at once.
Processing bottleneck.
A bunch of things have to go through a narrow channel to get there.
Examples: tra c flow with accident, manufacturing – assembly line – one person responsible or key step and messes up, it slows down or stops process.
Argument: yes – our mind has di erent abilities to do things for di erent spheres to do them, one would be for speaking, seeing stu for vision, smelling stu.
Concept is each one of those operates on their own, but if you force everything in one of those channels, it piles up.
Brook (1968)
Had participates think of big block letter; Draw bug block letter in A and outline it in clockwise order – if corner is on top or bottom – its a yes, comer in the middle – no.
Another task - think of a sentence and categorized each word.
Word is a noun – point upward; Word is not a noun – point downward.
Then crossed these two things-The response was not done by pointing – some people had to do it by saying yes or no.
*Main point: when doing a task that has to do with spatial stu – and have to respond with a spatial response –this gets confusing because your mind is piling this load onto your spatial part of your mind you get confused.
Explanation Note
When two task tap di erent resources, they can run in parallel, but when they tap the same resources, they overload the capacity of that resource.
Mental module. A part of the mind whose job is to process a particular kind of information (e.g. verbal, spatial, olfactory, musical…). Mental modules are defined by their functions (they might correspond to specific regions of the brain, or they might not).
Brooks experiment provides evidence for task-specific mental modules.
Task Specific Mental Module
Another idea: task general module.
There are certain specific parts of the ind that are responsible for certain thinking – but also part of the mind that are going across these levels.
Something ot out the di erent results of the di erent modules together to paint the picture
Is there is a task general module.
Driving a car and participating in a conversation is generally easy; driving gets rough, and it isn't so.
Experimental Evidence
Stimulated cell phone use (strayer and Johnston, 2001).
Method: dual-task
Task 1: track a moving target with a joystick., Red and green lights appear erratically; push button for red lights only
Task 2: either: (a) listen to the radio broadcast of the participants choosing or (b) converse with a confederate about a political issue (the simulate cell phone case).
Measures: accuracy of “braking,” reaction time – pushing red button.
Probability of a miss: missing the red light.
There is an e ect that when you make it harder, it inhinge on the driving.
Model: Baddeley's "Working Memory" Model
The mind works like a desk desk has a desktop where there is various tools for thinking that correspond with modules and tools is tape recorder and visual spatial sketch pad; and the books in the back as the brain that we have stored in order to make sense of the present.
Desktop: short term memory.
Tapes/ books : long-term memory.
How does the coordination work through central executive.
Memory: Intro and Modal Model
Dilatant likes to think about stu and talk, but does not do very much.
Died right after he wrote: Remembrance of Things Past that was a deep musing on special character of memory and remembering what happened before and can come up later in life-This whole book is saying what is happening when it connects with your past.
Types of Memory
Procedural memory: Anything to do with things you know how to do – riding a bicycle, don't really need to think/talk about it, your body and mind together know how to do it.
Declarative memory: Stu that are facts, truth, things that are stated.
semantic/generic: knowledge of how things work in your life, refer to an apple – say apple. Not tied to any experience, just general knowledge. Live in a state called Connecticut etc. General knowledge of the way the world is.
Episodic memory: not general things but specific experiences that you've had in your life that you remember. Record everything that happens to you.
Short term: briefly what's going on with us right now in the last few minutes.
Long term: any long longer than a couple minutes.
The Modal Model
Incoming information – stu coming in your sense.
Early analysis – initial analysis.
Short term memory. A space where you can put a few things – slots you can put things – around 7 or so; dealing with stream of experiences as it is coming to us moment by moment is grabbing thing as seen as important, but also loses things that are less important.
Maintenance rehearsal - if you get information and need to hold onto it, you can keep remembering it over and over again.
Long term memory: Huge, has all the stu you know, has all episodic memory.
General Experimental Method: List Recall
Claim: our memory may be divided into short term and long term – main idea; short term is a limited capacity bu er, only have a limited edition to handle information.
As you do more and more Maintenance rehearsal – it drills it into the long-term memory.
Idea: short- and long-term memory work: Short term memory sees it and decides what to do with it, consults the long-term memory to figure out what to do, and Short term can look stu up using long term.
Words are read out loud at a regular pace, typically 15-20.
After list is red, participates is asked to recall the words in any order (free recall sees how well people do remembering these words).
Primacy and recency: At the beginning people remember quite well, and words that are at the end of the list the typically repeat, and They don't remember woods in the middle - one big u shape curve .
Interpretation
Primacy: the first words that they heard are remembered, and then Recency they remember the last words they heard.
The modal model tells us that the graph will show a U shape.
How primacy and recency are explained by the modal model.
Primacy: more rehearsal (hence better transfer into long0term memory) for earlier words.
Recency: the recent words are still in short term memory.
If there way we could do a memory test where the short term would stop happening (recency), but the primacy would still be there by telling them to Do ordered recall; or better yet, have a bu er time at the end of the list so they are still utilizing the repeating method.
Variation 1: Delayed Response
Immediate response is just immediate after the last word was read.
Condition 2: delay with silence-silently after the list, you will be asked 30 seconds after the list to repeat them.
Condition 3: delay with filler activity task. (you were given a random number, count back by 3s).-this is successful selective disabling of the recency e ect – confirmation of being separate part of the mind that is the short-term bu er.
Variation 2: Speed of List Presentation
This should reduce how well they do at the beginning of the list because of the lack of ability for maintenance rehearsal by giving word faster and you can't do much maintenance.
If you give words faster, they can't do as much maintenance.
It is to see Fast vs. Slow-Slow presentation and fast presentation and is it effective at selectively disabling one part but not the other.
Interpretation
Fast presentation speed hampers transfer to long term memory – supports existence of long-term memory by showing that it can be selective disabled (or at least weakened).
Result
Americans went through high school name all the presidents of the unstates; has a U shape, but there's an exception or Lincoln in the middle because Lincoln is a feature of the American culture, that for some reason everybody knows but other than what we get a U shape.
President test result-This whole thing is the memory structure scale is different from other scale.
At the end of the playing season, rugby players in England’s Rugby Union were asked to recall which teams they had played over the course of the season; The researchers surreptitiously (slyly) recorder where their colleagues parked over the course of 25 days at the psychology unit of their colleagues and then rested each person's memory for their parking spaces;
Criticism Towards Modal Model
The results and time over which the Recency of Recency effects is huge, and memory can be remembered at days, months or throughout life. This is not what the model is saiyng because it states the time scale shouldn't be over a couple minutes.
Baddeley's Working Memory Model: The Digit-Span Measure
Digit span = list length or which the participants get half the trials right= Miller "the magical number 7 plus or minus two).
Hypothesis: memory of numbers that were relevant to the numbers from track and field and this has
Cross-Cutting Themes in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on the internal thinking mechanisms of the mind, exploring how individuals perceive, learn, remember, and think about the world. It seeks to understand the processes underlying cognition, such as attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Three cross-cutting themes:
Brain/neurobiology: Understanding the physical basis of cognition. This involves studying the neural substrates of cognitive processes, including brain structures, neural circuits, and neurochemical mechanisms. Techniques such as fMRI, EEG, and TMS are used to investigate how the brain supports cognitive functions.
Modeling: Building working models to replicate and understand phenomena, including computer simulations. Computational models are used to simulate cognitive processes and make predictions about behavior. These models can be implemented as computer programs, allowing researchers to test hypotheses and explore the dynamics of cognitive systems.
World-relevance: Applying cognitive psychology to real-world problems and recognizing its connections to other fields. Cognitive psychology has practical applications in areas such as education, healthcare, human-computer interaction, and artificial intelligence. By understanding how people think and learn, cognitive psychologists can develop interventions to improve learning, enhance decision-making, and optimize human performance.
History in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct field in the 20th century, gaining prominence in the 19th century. It represents a shift away from behaviorism, which focused solely on observable behavior, towards the study of internal mental processes.
Before this, philosophy was the primary mode of inquiry, with philosophical inquiry providing the conceptual foundations for understanding the mind. Early philosophers explored questions about knowledge, perception, and consciousness, laying the groundwork for the development of cognitive psychology.
Thales (625-545 BC)
Of Miletus, located in ancient Greece (present-day Turkey). Thales is considered one of the first philosophers in the Western tradition.
A philosopher who pondered the fundamental nature of things. He sought to identify the underlying principles and elements that constitute reality.
Predicted a solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC by observing patterns. This demonstrates Thales' ability to use empirical observation and reasoning to make predictions about natural phenomena.
Predicted a successful olive harvest and invested in olive presses, demonstrating the practical application of his wisdom. This highlights the intersection of philosophical inquiry and practical knowledge in Thales' thinking.
Fell into a well while stargazing (as told by Plato). This anecdote illustrates the tension between abstract contemplation and practical affairs in Thales' life.
Posited the concept of physis, the fundamental substance of which everything is made.
This idea foreshadows the concept of atoms. The notion of a fundamental building block of matter is a precursor to modern atomic theory.
Thales believed water was the physis. He proposed that water is the ultimate source of all things and that everything is derived from water.
His student, Anaximander, suggested it was apeiron (boundless primordial mass). Anaximander argued that the physis is not a specific substance like water but rather an unlimited and undefined principle.
Thales' ideas initiated a long quest to identify the fundamental building blocks of existence. His emphasis on identifying the underlying principles of reality set the stage for subsequent philosophical and scientific inquiry.
Pertinence to the development of science:
The unification of understanding is a core goal of scientific endeavor. Science seeks to develop comprehensive theories that explain a wide range of phenomena in terms of a few fundamental principles.
The critical tradition was initiated.
Ideas are proposed, discussed, and critically evaluated; the best survive. The process of proposing, testing, and refining ideas is central to the scientific method.
Thales encouraged his students, Anaximander and Anaximenes, to disagree with him. This emphasis on intellectual debate and dissent fostered the development of new ideas and perspectives.
This concept foreshadows Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest. The idea that the best ideas survive through critical evaluation and refinement is analogous to the concept of natural selection in evolutionary theory.
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Of Athens, Greece. Socrates is regarded as one of the founders of Western philosophy.
Known as the "Gadfly" of Athens, drawing attention to important issues and questioning prevailing ideas. He challenged conventional wisdom and encouraged critical thinking among his fellow citizens.
Central figure in the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. Socrates' ideas and methods are primarily known through the writings of his students, Plato and Xenophon.
Animated the critical tradition through the Socratic Method:
Answering a question with another question, prompting people to discover contradictions in their own ideas. The Socratic Method involves a process of inquiry and dialogue aimed at uncovering underlying assumptions and inconsistencies in beliefs.
Executed by the state of Athens for "impiety" and "corrupting the youth."
Faced death with composure, drinking hemlock in the presence of his students. Socrates' willingness to face death rather than compromise his principles has made him a symbol of intellectual integrity and moral courage.
Plato
A student of Socrates (also of Athens). Plato is one of the most influential philosophers in Western history.
Developed the Theory of Pure Forms or Essences, suggesting that everything has an ideal version. Plato's theory posits that the physical world is merely a reflection of a higher realm of perfect and unchanging Forms.
All actual cats are imperfect copies of an ideal cat. According to Plato, every object or concept in the physical world is an imperfect instantiation of its corresponding Form.
Initially believed mathematics was key to understanding these pure forms.
A sign over the door to his school read: "Let nobody unversed in geometry enter." This reflects Plato's belief that mathematical knowledge is essential for understanding the fundamental nature of reality.
Argued that mathematics possesses an ideal character.
A drawn triangle is not a perfect triangle and does not perfectly represent the Pythagorean theorem. Plato argued that mathematical truths are eternal and unchanging, existing independently of the physical world.
Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Individuals are trapped in a cave, seeing only shadows cast on the wall. The Allegory of the Cave is a metaphor for the human condition, in which individuals are initially ignorant of the true nature of reality.
One person escapes and sees the real world, including sunlight and actual objects. The escaped prisoner represents the philosopher who has gained enlightenment and understands the true nature of reality.
The shadows represent our perceptions, which are imperfect representations of reality. Our everyday experiences and perceptions are limited and distorted, like the shadows on the cave wall.
We must look deeper to understand the true nature of things (introspection). Plato argued that true knowledge can only be obtained through reason and contemplation, rather than relying solely on sensory experience.
This viewpoint is known as rationalism. Rationalism emphasizes the role of reason and logic in acquiring knowledge, as opposed to empiricism, which emphasizes sensory experience.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
A student of Plato (also of Athens). Aristotle was a polymath who made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and science.
His father was a physician, and he likely received early medical training. Aristotle's background in medicine may have influenced his approach to understanding living organisms.
Classified many things, proposing the first taxonomic hierarchy.
Animals:
Blooded (vertebrates) - live-birth bearing creatures. Internal skeleton
Bloodless (invertebrates) - egg layers.
Early theory of sensation:
Each sense detects a particular kind of movement in the environment.
Seeing results from the movement of light.
Hearing results from the movement of air.
Touch and taste result from the movement of flesh.
This foreshadows a physiological understanding of the nervous system. Aristotle's ideas about sensation laid the groundwork for later physiological studies of the nervous system.
Theory of universals:
Like Plato, Aristotle acknowledged universal truths or "essences."
Unlike Plato, he believed that each instance of a type possessed the universal property associated with that type (e.g., "cat-ness" is physically inside each cat). Aristotle's view contrasts with Plato's theory of Forms, in which universals exist independently of particular instances.
Empiricism:
Discovering truth by generalizing across observed causes in the world (trusting the senses). Empiricism emphasizes the role of sensory experience and observation in acquiring knowledge.
Summary of Viewpoints
Rationalism:
Essential, perfect truths exist.
Logical introspection (deduction) is the best way to know them.
The sensory world is untrustworthy.
Empiricism:
Discover truth through the senses.
Discover abstractions by observing many instances (induction).
The Age of Enlightenment (17th and 18th Centuries in Europe)
Also known as the Age of Reason. The Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and cultural ferment characterized by a focus on reason, individualism, and human rights.
Foundation of modern civilization. The Enlightenment had a profound impact on the development of modern science, politics, and society.
Descartes (1596-1650)
A rationalist from France. René Descartes was a philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is considered one of the founders of modern philosophy.
Mistrustful of the senses.
Example: The dot on the letter "i" can be mistaken for an "L". Descartes argued that sensory perceptions can be deceptive and unreliable.
"Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am):
Through deep doubt, he realized that the act of doubting proved his existence. This famous statement encapsulates Descartes' method of radical doubt and his emphasis on the certainty of self-consciousness.
Human reason is unique and provides more insight than the senses alone. Descartes believed that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that it can lead to certain and indubitable truths.
Lived wildly, gambling, dancing, and fighting. Despite his intellectual pursuits, Descartes led a colorful and adventurous life.
Dualism: The belief in a nonphysical mind and a physical body. Descartes' dualism posits a fundamental distinction between the mental and physical realms.
An influential concept that has persisted. Dualism has had a lasting impact on philosophy and psychology, although it has also been the subject of much debate and criticism.
The opposite of dualism is generally "monism" (only one kind) or "pluralism" (many kinds).
Monism aligns well with science, suggesting only the physical world exists. Monism asserts that there is only one fundamental substance or principle underlying reality, such as matter or mind.
The Notion of "Model" in Cognitive Psychology
A hydraulic mechanical statue in the royal gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye served as a model for Descartes' understanding of the nervous system.
Stepping on a place in the path and the statue moves – Descartes model of nervous system.
He said this could be how our minds work. Water moves from one area (foot) which causes it to do something else (move it away).
A model is a mechanistic approximation of something real, at some level, we fully understand cause and e ect.
When a foot is near fire, the brain can control the actions of the body – like the statue – the mind will pull the foot away.
Hume (1711-1776)
From Scotland. David Hume was a philosopher, historian, and economist who is considered one of the most important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment.
One of the British Empiricists.
Other major ones:
John Locke (tabula rasa - "blank slate"). Locke argued that the mind is initially devoid of knowledge and that all knowledge is derived from experience.
George Berkley (Esse Est percipi - "to be is to be perceived"). Berkeley argued that reality is fundamentally mental and that objects exist only insofar as they are perceived.
Believed sensory experience provides the elements of knowledge (smell, color, movement, extension in space). Hume argued that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sensory impressions.
Sought to understand the laws of association between ideas, proposing association by contiguity (togetherness) in space and time.
Example: Thunder and lightning; because lightning precedes thunder, we come to believe that it causes thunder.
Note: atmospheric science today supports this interpretation for the case of lightning and thunder.
Causality is a subjective joining of events.
Example: The rooster crowing causes the sun to rise (a false perception of causality). Hume argued that causality is not an objective feature of the world but rather a subjective inference based on our experience of constant conjunction between events.
Key Concepts: Questions
Rationalism (Plato, Descartes).
Empiricism (Aristotle, Hume).
Critical tradition: Building ideas upon ideas, winnowing out the dubious ones. The critical tradition involves a process of intellectual inquiry and debate aimed at identifying and eliminating errors in reasoning and belief.
Why is the distinction between rationalism and empiricism so important?
The method of throwing many ideas into a soup and letting the best ones survive has come up in the Critical Tradition, in democratic political systems, and in Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (relevant to the field of cognition). The interplay between rationalism and empiricism has shaped the development of cognitive
Cross-Cutting Themes in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on the internal thinking mechanisms of the mind, exploring how individuals perceive, learn, remember, and think about the world. It seeks to understand the processes underlying cognition, such as attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Three cross-cutting themes:
Brain/neurobiology: Understanding the physical basis of cognition. This involves studying the neural substrates of cognitive processes, including brain structures, neural circuits, and neurochemical mechanisms. Techniques such as fMRI, EEG, and TMS are used to investigate how the brain supports cognitive functions.
Modeling: Building working models to replicate and understand phenomena, including computer simulations. Computational models are used to simulate cognitive processes and make predictions about behavior. These models can be implemented as computer programs, allowing researchers to test hypotheses and explore the dynamics of cognitive systems.
World-relevance: Applying cognitive psychology to real-world problems and recognizing its connections to other fields. Cognitive psychology has practical applications in areas such as education, healthcare, human-computer interaction, and artificial intelligence. By understanding how people think and learn, cognitive psychologists can develop interventions to improve learning, enhance decision-making, and optimize human performance.
History in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct field in the 20th century, gaining prominence in the 19th century. It represents a shift away from behaviorism, which focused solely on observable behavior, towards the study of internal mental processes.
Before this, philosophy was the primary mode of inquiry, with philosophical inquiry providing the conceptual foundations for understanding the mind. Early philosophers explored questions about knowledge, perception, and consciousness, laying the groundwork for the development of cognitive psychology.
Thales (625-545 BC)
Of Miletus, located in ancient Greece (present-day Turkey). Thales is considered one of the first philosophers in the Western tradition.
A philosopher who pondered the fundamental nature of things. He sought to identify the underlying principles and elements that constitute reality.
Predicted a solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC by observing patterns. This demonstrates Thales' ability to use empirical observation and reasoning to make predictions about natural phenomena.
Predicted a successful olive harvest and invested in olive presses, demonstrating the practical application of his wisdom. This highlights the intersection of philosophical inquiry and practical knowledge in Thales' thinking.
Fell into a well while stargazing (as told by Plato). This anecdote illustrates the tension between abstract contemplation and practical affairs in Thales' life.
Posited the concept of physis, the fundamental substance of which everything is made.
This idea foreshadows the concept of atoms. The notion of a fundamental building block of matter is a precursor to modern atomic theory.
Thales believed water was the physis. He proposed that water is the ultimate source of all things and that everything is derived from water.
His student, Anaximander, suggested it was apeiron (boundless primordial mass). Anaximander argued that the physis is not a specific substance like water but rather an unlimited and undefined principle.
Thales' ideas initiated a long quest to identify the fundamental building blocks of existence. His emphasis on identifying the underlying principles of reality set the stage for subsequent philosophical and scientific inquiry.
Pertinence to the development of science:
The unification of understanding is a core goal of scientific endeavor. Science seeks to develop comprehensive theories that explain a wide range of phenomena in terms of a few fundamental principles.
The critical tradition was initiated.
Ideas are proposed, discussed, and critically evaluated; the best survive. The process of proposing, testing, and refining ideas is central to the scientific method.
Thales encouraged his students, Anaximander and Anaximenes, to disagree with him. This emphasis on intellectual debate and dissent fostered the development of new ideas and perspectives.
This concept foreshadows Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest. The idea that the best ideas survive through critical evaluation and refinement is analogous to the concept of natural selection in evolutionary theory.
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Of Athens, Greece. Socrates is regarded as one of the founders of Western philosophy.
Known as the "Gadfly" of Athens, drawing attention to important issues and questioning prevailing ideas. He challenged conventional wisdom and encouraged critical thinking among his fellow citizens.
Central figure in the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. Socrates' ideas and methods are primarily known through the writings of his students, Plato and Xenophon.
Animated the critical tradition through the Socratic Method:
Answering a question with another question, prompting people to discover contradictions in their own ideas. The Socratic Method involves a process of inquiry and dialogue aimed at uncovering underlying assumptions and inconsistencies in beliefs.
Executed by the state of Athens for "impiety" and "corrupting the youth."
Faced death with composure, drinking hemlock in the presence of his students. Socrates' willingness to face death rather than compromise his principles has made him a symbol of intellectual integrity and moral courage.
Plato
A student of Socrates (also of Athens). Plato is one of the most influential philosophers in Western history.
Developed the Theory of Pure Forms or Essences, suggesting that everything has an ideal version. Plato's theory posits that the physical world is merely a reflection of a higher realm of perfect and unchanging Forms.
All actual cats are imperfect copies of an ideal cat. According to Plato, every object or concept in the physical world is an imperfect instantiation of its corresponding Form.
Initially believed mathematics was key to understanding these pure forms.
A sign over the door to his school read: "Let nobody unversed in geometry enter." This reflects Plato's belief that mathematical knowledge is essential for understanding the fundamental nature of reality.
Argued that mathematics possesses an ideal character.
A drawn triangle is not a perfect triangle and does not perfectly represent the Pythagorean theorem. Plato argued that mathematical truths are eternal and unchanging, existing independently of the physical world.
Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Individuals are trapped in a cave, seeing only shadows cast on the wall. The Allegory of the Cave is a metaphor for the human condition, in which individuals are initially ignorant of the true nature of reality.
One person escapes and sees the real world, including sunlight and actual objects. The escaped prisoner represents the philosopher who has gained enlightenment and understands the true nature of reality.
The shadows represent our perceptions, which are imperfect representations of reality. Our everyday experiences and perceptions are limited and distorted, like the shadows on the cave wall.
We must look deeper to understand the true nature of things (introspection). Plato argued that true knowledge can only be obtained through reason and contemplation, rather than relying solely on sensory experience.
This viewpoint is known as rationalism. Rationalism emphasizes the role of reason and logic in acquiring knowledge, as opposed to empiricism, which emphasizes sensory experience.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
A student of Plato (also of Athens). Aristotle was a polymath who made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and science.
His father was a physician, and he likely received early medical training. Aristotle's background in medicine may have influenced his approach to understanding living organisms.
Classified many things, proposing the first taxonomic hierarchy.
Animals:
Blooded (vertebrates) - live-birth bearing creatures. Internal skeleton
Bloodless (invertebrates) - egg layers.
Early theory of sensation:
Each sense detects a particular kind of movement in the environment.
Seeing results from the movement of light.
Hearing results from the movement of air.
Touch and taste result from the movement of flesh.
This foreshadows a physiological understanding of the nervous system. Aristotle's ideas about sensation laid the groundwork for later physiological studies of the nervous system.
Theory of universals:
Like Plato, Aristotle acknowledged universal truths or "essences."
Unlike Plato, he believed that each instance of a type possessed the universal property associated with that type (e.g., "cat-ness" is physically inside each cat). Aristotle's view contrasts with Plato's theory of Forms, in which universals exist independently of particular instances.
Empiricism:
Discovering truth by generalizing across observed causes in the world (trusting the senses). Empiricism emphasizes the role of sensory experience and observation in acquiring knowledge.
Summary of Viewpoints
Rationalism:
Essential, perfect truths exist.
Logical introspection (deduction) is the best way to know them.
The sensory world is untrustworthy.
Empiricism:
Discover truth through the senses.
Discover abstractions by observing many instances (induction).
The Age of Enlightenment (17th and 18th Centuries in Europe)
Also known as the Age of Reason. The Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and cultural ferment characterized by a focus on reason, individualism, and human rights.
Foundation of modern civilization. The Enlightenment had a profound impact on the development of modern science, politics, and society.
Descartes (1596-1650)
A rationalist from France. René Descartes was a philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is considered one of the founders of modern philosophy.
Mistrustful of the senses.
Example: The dot on the letter "i" can be mistaken for an "L". Descartes argued that sensory perceptions can be deceptive and unreliable.
"Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am):
Through deep doubt, he realized that the act of doubting proved his existence. This famous statement encapsulates Descartes' method of radical doubt and his emphasis on the certainty of self-consciousness.
Human reason is unique and provides more insight than the senses alone. Descartes believed that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that it can lead to certain and indubitable truths.
Lived wildly, gambling, dancing, and fighting. Despite his intellectual pursuits, Descartes led a colorful and adventurous life.
Dualism: The belief in a nonphysical mind and a physical body. Descartes' dualism posits a fundamental distinction between the mental and physical realms.
An influential concept that has persisted. Dualism has had a lasting impact on philosophy and psychology, although it has also been the subject of much debate and criticism.
The opposite of dualism is generally "monism" (only one kind) or "pluralism" (many kinds).
Monism aligns well with science, suggesting only the physical world exists. Monism asserts that there is only one fundamental substance or principle underlying reality, such as matter or mind.
The Notion of "Model" in Cognitive Psychology
A hydraulic mechanical statue in the royal gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye served as a model for Descartes' understanding of the nervous system.
Stepping on a place in the path and the statue moves – Descartes model of nervous system.
He said this could be how our minds work. Water moves from one area (foot) which causes it to do something else (move it away).
A model is a mechanistic approximation of something real, at some level, we fully understand cause and e ect.
When a foot is near fire, the brain can control the actions of the body – like the statue – the mind will pull the foot away.
Hume (1711-1776)
From Scotland. David Hume was a philosopher, historian, and economist who is considered one of the most important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment.
One of the British Empiricists.
Other major ones:
John Locke (tabula rasa - "blank slate"). Locke argued that the mind is initially devoid of knowledge and that all knowledge is derived from experience.
George Berkley (Esse Est percipi - "to be is to be perceived"). Berkeley argued that reality is fundamentally mental and that objects exist only insofar as they are perceived.
Believed sensory experience provides the elements of knowledge (smell, color, movement, extension in space). Hume argued that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sensory impressions.
Sought to understand the laws of association between ideas, proposing association by contiguity (togetherness) in space and time.
Example: Thunder and lightning; because lightning precedes thunder, we come to believe that it causes thunder.
Note: atmospheric science today supports this interpretation for the case of lightning and thunder.
Causality is a subjective joining of events.
Example: The rooster crowing causes the sun to rise (a false perception of causality). Hume argued that causality is not an objective feature of the world but rather a subjective inference based on our experience of constant conjunction between events.
Key Concepts: Questions
Rationalism (Plato, Descartes).
Empiricism (Aristotle, Hume).
Critical tradition: Building ideas upon ideas, winnowing out the dubious ones. The critical tradition involves a process of intellectual inquiry and debate aimed at identifying and eliminating errors in reasoning and belief.
Why is the distinction between rationalism and empiricism so important?
The method of throwing many ideas into a soup and letting the best ones survive has come up in the Critical Tradition, in democratic political systems, and in Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (relevant to the field of cognition). The interplay between rationalism and empiricism has shaped the development of cognitive
Cross-Cutting Themes in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology focuses on the internal thinking mechanisms of the mind, exploring how individuals perceive, learn, remember, and think about the world. It seeks to understand the processes underlying cognition, such as attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Three cross-cutting themes:
Brain/neurobiology: Understanding the physical basis of cognition. This involves studying the neural substrates of cognitive processes, including brain structures, neural circuits, and neurochemical mechanisms. Techniques such as fMRI, EEG, and TMS are used to investigate how the brain supports cognitive functions.
Modeling: Building working models to replicate and understand phenomena, including computer simulations. Computational models are used to simulate cognitive processes and make predictions about behavior. These models can be implemented as computer programs, allowing researchers to test hypotheses and explore the dynamics of cognitive systems.
World-relevance: Applying cognitive psychology to real-world problems and recognizing its connections to other fields. Cognitive psychology has practical applications in areas such as education, healthcare, human-computer interaction, and artificial intelligence. By understanding how people think and learn, cognitive psychologists can develop interventions to improve learning, enhance decision-making, and optimize human performance.
History in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct field in the 20th century, gaining prominence in the 19th century. It represents a shift away from behaviorism, which focused solely on observable behavior, towards the study of internal mental processes.
Before this, philosophy was the primary mode of inquiry, with philosophical inquiry providing the conceptual foundations for understanding the mind. Early philosophers explored questions about knowledge, perception, and consciousness, laying the groundwork for the development of cognitive psychology.
Thales (625-545 BC)
Of Miletus, located in ancient Greece (present-day Turkey). Thales is considered one of the first philosophers in the Western tradition.
A philosopher who pondered the fundamental nature of things. He sought to identify the underlying principles and elements that constitute reality.
Predicted a solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC by observing patterns. This demonstrates Thales' ability to use empirical observation and reasoning to make predictions about natural phenomena.
Predicted a successful olive harvest and invested in olive presses, demonstrating the practical application of his wisdom. This highlights the intersection of philosophical inquiry and practical knowledge in Thales' thinking.
Fell into a well while stargazing (as told by Plato). This anecdote illustrates the tension between abstract contemplation and practical affairs in Thales' life.
Posited the concept of physis, the fundamental substance of which everything is made.
This idea foreshadows the concept of atoms. The notion of a fundamental building block of matter is a precursor to modern atomic theory.
Thales believed water was the physis. He proposed that water is the ultimate source of all things and that everything is derived from water.
His student, Anaximander, suggested it was apeiron (boundless primordial mass). Anaximander argued that the physis is not a specific substance like water but rather an unlimited and undefined principle.
Thales' ideas initiated a long quest to identify the fundamental building blocks of existence. His emphasis on identifying the underlying principles of reality set the stage for subsequent philosophical and scientific inquiry.
Pertinence to the development of science:
The unification of understanding is a core goal of scientific endeavor. Science seeks to develop comprehensive theories that explain a wide range of phenomena in terms of a few fundamental principles.
The critical tradition was initiated.
Ideas are proposed, discussed, and critically evaluated; the best survive. The process of proposing, testing, and refining ideas is central to the scientific method.
Thales encouraged his students, Anaximander and Anaximenes, to disagree with him. This emphasis on intellectual debate and dissent fostered the development of new ideas and perspectives.
This concept foreshadows Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest. The idea that the best ideas survive through critical evaluation and refinement is analogous to the concept of natural selection in evolutionary theory.
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Of Athens, Greece. Socrates is regarded as one of the founders of Western philosophy.
Known as the "Gadfly" of Athens, drawing attention to important issues and questioning prevailing ideas. He challenged conventional wisdom and encouraged critical thinking among his fellow citizens.
Central figure in the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. Socrates' ideas and methods are primarily known through the writings of his students, Plato and Xenophon.
Animated the critical tradition through the Socratic Method:
Answering a question with another question, prompting people to discover contradictions in their own ideas. The Socratic Method involves a process of inquiry and dialogue aimed at uncovering underlying assumptions and inconsistencies in beliefs.
Executed by the state of Athens for "impiety" and "corrupting the youth."
Faced death with composure, drinking hemlock in the presence of his students. Socrates' willingness to face death rather than compromise his principles has made him a symbol of intellectual integrity and moral courage.
Plato
A student of Socrates (also of Athens). Plato is one of the most influential philosophers in Western history.
Developed the Theory of Pure Forms or Essences, suggesting that everything has an ideal version. Plato's theory posits that the physical world is merely a reflection of a higher realm of perfect and unchanging Forms.
All actual cats are imperfect copies of an ideal cat. According to Plato, every object or concept in the physical world is an imperfect instantiation of its corresponding Form.
Initially believed mathematics was key to understanding these pure forms.
A sign over the door to his school read: "Let nobody unversed in geometry enter." This reflects Plato's belief that mathematical knowledge is essential for understanding the fundamental nature of reality.
Argued that mathematics possesses an ideal character.
A drawn triangle is not a perfect triangle and does not perfectly represent the Pythagorean theorem. Plato argued that mathematical truths are eternal and unchanging, existing independently of the physical world.
Plato's Allegory of the Cave
Individuals are trapped in a cave, seeing only shadows cast on the wall. The Allegory of the Cave is a metaphor for the human condition, in which individuals are initially ignorant of the true nature of reality.
One person escapes and sees the real world, including sunlight and actual objects. The escaped prisoner represents the philosopher who has gained enlightenment and understands the true nature of reality.
The shadows represent our perceptions, which are imperfect representations of reality. Our everyday experiences and perceptions are limited and distorted, like the shadows on the cave wall.
We must look deeper to understand the true nature of things (introspection). Plato argued that true knowledge can only be obtained through reason and contemplation, rather than relying solely on sensory experience.
This viewpoint is known as rationalism. Rationalism emphasizes the role of reason and logic in acquiring knowledge, as opposed to empiricism, which emphasizes sensory experience.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
A student of Plato (also of Athens). Aristotle was a polymath who made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and science.
His father was a physician, and he likely received early medical training. Aristotle's background in medicine may have influenced his approach to understanding living organisms.
Classified many things, proposing the first taxonomic hierarchy.
Animals:
Blooded (vertebrates) - live-birth bearing creatures. Internal skeleton
Bloodless (invertebrates) - egg layers.
Early theory of sensation:
Each sense detects a particular kind of movement in the environment.
Seeing results from the movement of light.
Hearing results from the movement of air.
Touch and taste result from the movement of flesh.
This foreshadows a physiological understanding of the nervous system. Aristotle's ideas about sensation laid the groundwork for later physiological studies of the nervous system.
Theory of universals:
Like Plato, Aristotle acknowledged universal truths or "essences."
Unlike Plato, he believed that each instance of a type possessed the universal property associated with that type (e.g., "cat-ness" is physically inside each cat). Aristotle's view contrasts with Plato's theory of Forms, in which universals exist independently of particular instances.
Empiricism:
Discovering truth by generalizing across observed causes in the world (trusting the senses). Empiricism emphasizes the role of sensory experience and observation in acquiring knowledge.
Summary of Viewpoints
Rationalism:
Essential, perfect truths exist.
Logical introspection (deduction) is the best way to know them.
The sensory world is untrustworthy.
Empiricism:
Discover truth through the senses.
Discover abstractions by observing many instances (induction).
The Age of Enlightenment (17th and 18th Centuries in Europe)
Also known as the Age of Reason. The Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and cultural ferment characterized by a focus on reason, individualism, and human rights.
Foundation of modern civilization. The Enlightenment had a profound impact on the development of modern science, politics, and society.
Descartes (1596-1650)
A rationalist from France. René Descartes was a philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who is considered one of the founders of modern philosophy.
Mistrustful of the senses.
Example: The dot on the letter "i" can be mistaken for an "L". Descartes argued that sensory perceptions can be deceptive and unreliable.
"Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am):
Through deep doubt, he realized that the act of doubting proved his existence. This famous statement encapsulates Descartes' method of radical doubt and his emphasis on the certainty of self-consciousness.
Human reason is unique and provides more insight than the senses alone. Descartes believed that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that it can lead to certain and indubitable truths.
Lived wildly, gambling, dancing, and fighting. Despite his intellectual pursuits, Descartes led a colorful and adventurous life.
Dualism: The belief in a nonphysical mind and a physical body. Descartes' dualism posits a fundamental distinction between the mental and physical realms.
An influential concept that has persisted. Dualism has had a lasting impact on philosophy and psychology, although it has also been the subject of much debate and criticism.
The opposite of dualism is generally "monism" (only one kind) or "pluralism" (many kinds).
Monism aligns well with science, suggesting only the physical world exists. Monism asserts that there is only one fundamental substance or principle underlying reality, such as matter or mind.
The Notion of "Model" in Cognitive Psychology
A hydraulic mechanical statue in the royal gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye served as a model for Descartes' understanding of the nervous system.
Stepping on a place in the path and the statue moves – Descartes model of nervous system.
He said this could be how our minds work. Water moves from one area (foot) which causes it to do something else (move it away).
A model is a mechanistic approximation of something real, at some level, we fully understand cause and e ect.
When a foot is near fire, the brain can control the actions of the body – like the statue – the mind will pull the foot away.
Hume (1711-1776)
From Scotland. David Hume was a philosopher, historian, and economist who is considered one of the most important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment.
One of the British Empiricists.
Other major ones:
John Locke (tabula rasa - "blank slate"). Locke argued that the mind is initially devoid of knowledge and that all knowledge is derived from experience.
George Berkley (Esse Est percipi - "to be is to be perceived"). Berkeley argued that reality is fundamentally mental and that objects exist only insofar as they are perceived.
Believed sensory experience provides the elements of knowledge (smell, color, movement, extension in space). Hume argued that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sensory impressions.
Sought to understand the laws of association between ideas, proposing association by contiguity (togetherness) in space and time.
Example: Thunder and lightning; because lightning precedes thunder, we come to believe that it causes thunder.
Note: atmospheric science today supports this interpretation for the case of lightning and thunder.
Causality is a subjective joining of events.
Example: The rooster crowing causes the sun to rise (a false perception of causality). Hume argued that causality is not an objective feature of the world but rather a subjective inference based on our experience of constant conjunction between events.
Key Concepts: Questions
Rationalism (Plato, Descartes).
Empiricism (Aristotle, Hume).
Critical tradition: Building ideas upon ideas, winnowing out the dubious ones. The critical tradition involves a process of intellectual inquiry and debate aimed at identifying and eliminating errors in reasoning and belief.
Why is the distinction between rationalism and empiricism so important?
The method of throwing many ideas into a soup and letting the best ones survive has come up in the Critical Tradition, in democratic political systems, and in Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (relevant to the field of cognition). The interplay between rationalism and empiricism has shaped the development of cognitive