Chap 1: Overview of Tsarist Russia and Its Autocracy (1855-1894)

The Russian Autocracy (1855 - 1894)

Overview of Tsarist Russia

• Modern Perspective: Historian Robert Service characterizes 19th century Russia as a rudimentary autocracy with minimal change until 1917, highlighting divisions and localism within society.
• Societal Structure: The Russian empire's cohesion depended on reverence for the tsar and the power of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Political Context

• Tsar's Authority: In 1855, the empire was an autocracy led by a czar, an ‘unlimited monarch’ as defined by Tsar Nicholas I's laws.
  • Stated that the tsar's authority was divinely ordained and demanded both fear and conscience-based obedience.
• Religious Role: The tsar was also viewed as the head of the Orthodox Church, reinforcing his comprehensive power over both state and religion.
• Church-State Relations: The Patriarch of Moscow provided spiritual guidance while the tsar controlled church appointments through the Holy Synod, intertwining state and church interests.

Government Structure

• Advisory Bodies:
  • Imperial Council (35-60 appointed nobles): Advised the tsar personally.
  • Council of Ministers (8-14 ministers): Oversaw government departments.
  • Senate: Intended to supervise government functionality but was ineffective by 1855.
• Provincial Nobility: Critical for support, although service was not obligatory leading to a disconnect from central authority.
• Bureaucracy: Comprised of nobles in a hierarchical structure with 14 ranks, filled with corruption and inefficiency. They enforced orders from the central government downwards.
• Military Power: Russia boasted the world's largest conscript army (1.5 million soldiers) mainly composed of serfs, with 45% of government expenditure allocated to military needs.
  • The elite Cossack regiments served as personal guards and police reinforcements for the tsar.

Maintaining Autocracy

• Police State: Employed to suppress freedom of speech, press, and political assembly through strict censorship.
• Secret Police: The Third Section conducted surveillance and enforced laws against dissent, utilizing informants to maintain control.

Economic and Social Context

Economic Backwardness

• Contextual Comparison: By 1855, Western Europe was advancing industrially while Russia stagnated, largely rural with an 11:1 ratio of villagers to town dwellers.
• Geographic Challenges: Much of the empire was inhospitable, hindering development despite vast agricultural resources.
  • Climate and geography contributed to economic limitations.
• Serfdom: The economy was heavily reliant on serfs, stifling wage labor, innovation, and market development.
  • Cottage industries provided only minimal economic independence, leading to dependency on landlords.
• Landowners' Attitudes: Many aristocrats showed little interest in improving estate efficiency, relying on serfs for service without investing in productive capabilities.

Taxation and Finance

• Tax Structure: The main revenue source was the poll tax (per head tax) affecting peasants, along with indirect taxes on goods.
  • Taxes primarily burdened peasants, while nobility were mostly exempt.
• Financial Strain: Revenue from indirect taxes, particularly on vodka, indicated a shift towards a more commercial revenue model.

Social Structure

• Class Divisions: Society was distinctly divided between a privileged elite (clergy, nobility, officials) and serfs, with scant emergence of a middle class.
• Legal Barriers: Mobility was restricted for serfs, bound to land and service, unlike the exempt aristocrats and clergy.

The Crimean War and Its Effects (1853-56)

• Context: The war reflected Russia's attempts to expand influence over the Ottoman Empire, portraying itself as a protector of Slavs.
• Military Outcomes: Initial successes led to disaster as Russia faced stronger and more technologically advanced British and French forces.
  • Major defeats highlighted the inadequacies of Russian military infrastructure.
• Consequences: The defeat resulted in humiliation for Russia, exposing flaws in administration and military logistics, prompting calls for reform.
• Aftermath: The war underscored the need for change, leading to Alexander II's rise and renewed liberal ideas among the nobility advocating for modernization without dismantling autocracy.