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🧠 Anatomy & Physiology Study GuideBasics of Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy – study of body structure
Physiology – study of body function
👉 Structure determines function

Scientific Method (Steps)

  1. Observation

  2. Question

  3. Hypothesis

  4. Experiment

  5. Data collection

  6. Conclusion

  7. Peer review / replication

Anatomical Organization & TerminologyAnatomical Planes

  • Sagittal – left & right

  • Frontal (coronal) – front & back

  • Transverse – top & bottom

Directional Terms

  • Superior / Inferior – above / below

  • Anterior / Posterior – front / back

  • Medial / Lateral – toward midline / away

  • Proximal / Distal – closer / farther from origin

  • Superficial / Deep – surface / internal

Body Regions

  • Axial – head, neck, trunk

  • Appendicular – limbs

Body Cavities

  • Dorsal – cranial, vertebral

  • Ventral

    • Thoracic – lungs, heart

    • Abdominopelvic – digestive, reproductive

Abdominopelvic Regions (9)

Right hypochondriac | Epigastric | Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar | Umbilical | Left lumbar
Right iliac | Hypogastric | Left iliac

Quadrants (4)

  • RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ

Levels of Organization

  • Cell – smallest living unit

  • Tissue – group of similar cells

  • Organ – 2+ tissues with specific function

  • Organ system – group of organs working together

Body Systems & Major Functions

  • Integumentary – protection, temperature (skin)

  • Skeletal – support, blood cells (bones)

  • Muscular – movement (muscles)

  • Nervous – fast control (brain, spinal cord)

  • Endocrine – hormones (glands)

  • Cardiovascular – transport (heart, blood)

  • Lymphatic/Immune – defense

  • Respiratory – gas exchange (lungs)

  • Digestive – nutrient absorption

  • Urinary – waste removal (kidneys)

  • Reproductive – reproduction

Homeostasis

Homeostasis – maintaining stable internal conditions

3 Major Components

  1. Receptor – detects change

  2. Control center – processes info

  3. Effector – responds

Feedback Mechanisms

  • Negative feedback – reverses change (body temp, blood glucose)

  • Positive feedback – amplifies change (labor contractions, blood clotting)

Chemistry BasicsAtom

Smallest unit of matter
Major atoms in body: C, H, O, N, Ca, P

Subatomic Particles

  • Protons (+)

  • Neutrons (neutral)

  • Electrons (–)

Molecule

Two or more atoms bonded together

Bonding & Polarity

  • Covalent bond – shares electrons

  • Electronegativity – ability to attract electrons

  • Polar – unequal sharing (water)

  • Nonpolar – equal sharing (fats)

  • Ionic bond – electron transfer → ions

Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate in water

Electrolytes

Ions that conduct electricity (Na⁺, K⁺)

Acids, Bases & pH

  • Acid – releases H⁺

  • Base – accepts H⁺

  • pH scale – 0–14 (7 = neutral)

  • Blood pH ≈ 7.35–7.45

Water Properties

  • Polar molecule

  • Excellent solvent

  • Forms hydrogen bonds

  • Hydrophilic – water-loving

  • Hydrophobic – water-fearing

MacromoleculesMonomers → Polymers

Small units → large chains

Carbohydrates

  • Structure: C, H, O (1:2:1)

  • Roles: energy, structure

  • Types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Lipids

  • Nonpolar

  • Roles: insulation, hormones, membranes

  • Types: fats, phospholipids, steroids

Proteins

  • Made of amino acids

  • Roles: enzymes, structure, transport, signaling

Nucleic Acids

  • DNA & RNA

  • Store genetic information

Enzymes

  • Biological catalysts

  • Lower activation energy

  • Specific to substrate

Enzyme Function Affected By:

  • Temperature – heat denatures

  • pH – extreme pH alters shape

ATP & Metabolism

  • ATP – energy currency

  • Metabolism – all chemical reactions

  • Catabolism – breaks down molecules (releases energy)

  • Anabolism – builds molecules (uses energy)

Energy Reactions

  • Exergonic – releases energy

  • Endergonic – requires energy

Cellular Respiration

  • Produces ATP + heat

  • With oxygen – more ATP

  • Without oxygen – less ATP

  • Glucose preferred; fats produce more ATP but slower

Cell Structure & Organelles

  • Nucleus – DNA control center

  • Cytosol – fluid inside cell

  • Plasma membrane – selective barrier

  • Ribosomes – protein synthesis

  • RER – proteins

  • SER – lipids, detox

  • Golgi – modifies & ships

  • Lysosomes – digestion

Endomembrane System

RER → Golgi → vesicles → membrane

Cytoskeleton

  • Microfilaments – shape

  • Intermediate filaments – strength

  • Microtubules – transport, division

Cell Membrane

  • Phospholipid bilayer

  • Functions: protection, communication, transport

Membrane Proteins

  • Channels

  • Carriers

  • Receptors

  • Enzymes

Cell Junctions

  • Tight – seals

  • Anchoring – strength

  • Gap – communication

Membrane TransportCan Cross Easily

  • Small, nonpolar molecules

Concentration Gradient

High → low concentration

Passive Transport

  • Diffusion

  • Facilitated diffusion

    • Channels

    • Carriers

Osmosis

Water movement

  • Hypotonic – cell swells

  • Isotonic – no change

  • Hypertonic – cell shrinks

Active Transport

  • Requires ATP

Vesicular Transport

  • Pinocytosis – fluids

  • Phagocytosis – solids

  • Exocytosis – exit cell

Genetics & Cell CycleTranscription vs Translation

  • Transcription – DNA → mRNA (nucleus)

  • Translation – mRNA → protein (ribosomes)

Gene

DNA segment coding for protein

Chromatin

DNA + proteins

Cell CycleInterphase

  • G1 – growth

  • S – DNA replication

  • G2 – prep

Mitosis

  1. Prophase

  2. Metaphase

  3. Anaphase

  4. Telophase
    (+ Cytokinesis)