The Third Crusade, Kerridge
The Age of the Crusades, 1071-1204
Kerridge – The Third Crusade
Preaching and Preparing for the Third Crusade
The Motives of Pope Gregory VIII
1. What impact did the fall of Jerusalem allegedly have on Pope Urban III?
Hastened his death
2. Who was his successor and how did he call for a new crusade (Be sure to provide detail of the name and what was contained within it).
Cardinal Alberto di Morra, took the name Gregory in honour of Gregory VII, issued papal bull ‘Audita tremendi’ – tells of the loss of Jerusalem and remission of sins
3. What were the two significant actions Gregory’s pontificate succeeded in doing and why were they significant?
Healed rift between Genoa and Pisa – Genoese brought supplies to help at the siege of Jerusalem and helped Baldwin I capture territory during the establishment of the kingdom, important traders and needed to bring troops and supplies to the third crusade
Place the papacy back on good terms with the Holy Romen Emperor – good relationship with Frederick Barbarossa meant emperor took cross without hesitation, powerful ruler
4. Who was particularly significant in the preaching of the Third Crusade and why?
Cardinal Paulino Scolari, became Pope Clement III who was followed after four years by Celestine III – instrumental in pushing Henry II and Phillip II to take the cross
The Siege of Acre
5. Who arrived in Tyre between Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem and why were they significant in the Third Crusade?
Conrad of Montferrat and companions, arrival boosted morale and offered leadership – able to hold out against Saladin’s attacks and became the objective for crusaders to reach
6. Research – Who was Guy de Lusignan and why was he significant prior to the Third Crusade?
King of Jerusalem, 1186-1192
7. Why did Guy decide to set out to siege Acre?
Wanted to regain kingdom but was disallowed entry to Tyre by Conrad
8. Why would Guy’s siege of Acre be significant?
Siege lasted August 1189 to July 1191, victory for crusaders was major blow to Saladin’s prestige which dented his aura of invincibility
The preparations of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa
9. List the reasons why Frederick would make a strong crusading leader
Most powerful ruler in Europe, accompanied Conrad III (uncle) on 2nd Crusade, spent much of reign subjugating Italians under German rule – fierce reputation in battle and politics
Utilised diplomatic moves towards local enemies, organising supplies and finances, and negotiating safe passages through hostile territory
10. What was Frederick’s relationship like with the Pope?
Strained, Urban III refused to crown Henry (Frederick’s son) as co-emperor due to Henry’s betrothal to Contance of Sicily effectively surrounding papal states with hostile neighbours.
11. What factors led to Frederick’s desire to take the cross at the Council of Mainz in 1188?
Aimed to better relations with Pope Gregory VIII
12. Why was there a focus on the protection of the Jewish population?
Sicut Judaeis, papal bull, promulgated after 1st Crusade which set out conditions for not harming Jews under threat of excommunication – may have wanted to borrow money from Jewish community
Frederick’s reconciliations
13. Why were there problems between Frederick and Philip von Heinsberg?
Expanded territories during 1170s
14. What evidence is there that they had repaired their relationship prior to Frederick going on crusade?
Phillip accompanied Frederick’s son Henry in his right to control Henry the Lion and gave 2000 marks to the crusade
Henry offered choice between restoration of his lands in return for relinquishment of the rest, participation in crusade at Frederick’s expense or a three-year exile
15. What was the ‘land peace’ and what evidence is there that Frederick made adequate preparations to ensure his lands did not descend into chaos?
Sought to regulate and limit feuds, turned attention to settling own and others’ squabbles
Henry (1st son) accepted as co-emperor and would rule in place of Henry VI
Frederick of Swabia (2nd son) crusaded with him
Frederick’s diplomacy
16. How did Frederick decide to travel to Jerusalem?
By the land route through Byzantium and Anatolia – sent envoys to Hungary and Constantinople to arrange supplies and routes
17. How did Isaac II (Byzantine Emperor) respond to Frederick’s requests for assistance?
Nothing was achieved
18. Why did Isaac II do this?
He had an existing agreement with Saladin to hinder Frederick’s progress, worried that Frederick would pursue land in the Balkans and feared Frederick would attack Constantinople and take empire for himself
19. How did the Anatolian Sultan Kilij Arlsan II respond to Frederick’s requests for safe passage through Anatolia?
Unsuccessful, Kilij diminished hold over his land
20. What do all of these negotiations suggest about Frederick’s primary objective?
His only objective was to capture Jerusalem, not interested in land in Byzantium or Anatolia
Frederick’s Finances
21. How did Frederick learn from the issues that emerged from the Second Crusade with reference to recruitment and finance?
Bernard of Clairvaux encouraged pilgrims and non-combatants, hampered success – Frederick ensured they were prepared for a 2-year expedition
Rank and file should have 3 marks each, knights carried 1 mark for each month plus equipment
Donation from Phillip von Heinsberg, Archbishop of Cologne, to contribute towards the costs
22. Summarize the judgement given regarding Frederick Barbarossa’s planning
Ensured that his absence would be well governed, had support of best German nobles and churchmen – failed to reach Outremer, potential different outcome if he had?
The Preparations of King Philip of France and Richard of England
23. Who was the first western ruler to take the cross and where/when was this?
Richard in autumn 1187, cathedral at Tours
24. Why were both Philip of France and Henry II angry regarding Richard’s taking of the cross?
Should’ve asked for their permission from liege-lord Phillip and father Henry II, murder of Thomas Becket meant Henry had been sending money to the east instead of going on crusade
25. Why did Richard want to go on crusade? List the reasons
High order military ability, grown up amongst troubadours, wanted the reputation of a successful crusader, remission of sins was attractive (act of remorse in Sicily proves piety)
26. When did Philip and Henry agree to take the cross?
Archbishop of Tyre delivered a sermon – met following Richard’s enlistment in January 1188
27. Why were the three in conflict again after taking the cross?
Phillip sided with Richard against Henry, Richard angry that Henry wouldn’t proclaim him as his heir and favoured John (younger brother)
28. What happened to Henry and what cause do people ascribe to this event?
Found out John (his favourite and youngest son) had been siding with Richard, died of heart break at Chinon castle in July 1189 – allowed (now) King Richard to begin preparations in earnest
Philip and Richard’s Finances
29. How did Richard collect money for the crusade?
Introduced tax on non-participants, Saladin Tithe, 10% tax on income and movable property, wanted to sell London but couldn’t find a buyer
30. Why might it make sense to sail to the Holy Land?
Leaving any poor non-combatants behind, only washerwomen of good repute allowed to travel
31. What evidence is there to suggest there was some financial motivation for Richard and Philip?
Any gains whilst on crusade they agreed to split 50-50
32. What is the counter argument to the argument that finance was their primary motivation?
Crusading was costly in terms of life and money, expected to be compensated or make a profit but didn’t diminish holy nature of the enterprise
Philip and Richard’s Reconciliations
33. How had Philip and Richard’s relationship changed since the death of Henry?
No ‘buffer’ after Henry’s death between their ambitions, no limits to power and acquisition of land
34. Why was there conflict between Richard and Philip over Alice (Philip’s daughter)?
Alice (Phillip’s sister) was betrothed to Richard, Henry agreed in 1169 and taken Alice into his care along with her dowry of the Vexin
Gave Henry a child, impossible to Richard to marry her, Richard married her in 1189 to pacify Phillip
Richard wanted to choose his own wife – eventually married Berengaria of Naverre, her father provided support against Raymond V of Toulouse
35. ANALYSIS – How strong does the relationship between Richard and Philip currently appear?
Poor as based upon fickle aims and marriage, ultimately butting heads with their overall aims
Philip and Richard’s diplomacy
36. What was ‘Philip’s Testament’ and how effective was it?
Settled affairs in France by delegating power to Adela, his mother, and William archbishop of Reims, his uncle – makes provisions for citizens of Paris to participate in their government
37. Why might Richard have had problems once Philip had left the Third Crusade?
1191, Richard had to be alert to any potential trouble John and Phillip would conspire to stir up trouble in his absence
38. What arrangements did Richard put in place before leaving?
Endowed John with land in England, concerned on his southern lands around Gascony due to being recently crowned king, hoped to limit damage John could do
William Marshall became a trusted councillor in Richard’s absence
Organised council to make decisions in England and married Berengaria of Navarre
39. Summarise the overall level of preparations made by the crusading leaders
The Course of the Third Crusade
Frederick’s Crusade – Remember, here we’re looking for evidence of strong leadership and weak leadership!
40. How many men did Frederick bring on crusade?
15,000-30,000 men – larger than any individual contingent from the 1st Crusade
41. How did Frederick deal with the problems after entering the Byzantine Empire?
Due to Isaac’s weak position as Byzantine emperor and limited hold on his provinces, feared of losing position to the Germans
Made alliances with chief leaders in the area, made it to Philippopolis without further incident
42. What evidence is there of conflict between Frederick and the Byzantine Empire?
Came under stack from locals who attempted to attack stragglers, rather than the army itself, requested envoys asking for safe passage and food
43. How did this conflict play out?
Isaac imprisoned envoys, Frederick retaliated by taking Didymotichum and sent word to Henry VI (son) to organise fleet against Byzantium and get pope’s blessing for crusade against the Greeks
Left Isaac nervous and Germans wintered at Adrianople before crossing the Dardanelles in March 1190
44. ANALYSIS – How much help does it appear that the Byzantines are providing in comparison with the other crusades?
Disaster in Anatolia
45. What evidence is there of trouble for Frederick upon entering Anatolia?
Frederick and his army faced constant harassment from the Turks, were short of food, had to cross a waterless land, and suffered increasing losses.
46. What evidence is there of success for Frederick by mid-May of 1190?
By mid-May, Frederick had reached Iconium (Konya), the Seljuk capital, where he triumphed in battle against the sultan’s son and gained entry to the town. His victory allowed him to negotiate supplies from a position of strength.
47. How did Saladin react to the threat of Frederick?
Saladin received reinforcements from northern Syria and Baghdad and redeployed men from the siege of Acre to counter the inevitable threat posed by Frederick.
48. What happened to Frederick and what impact did this have on the crusade?
Frederick drowned while crossing the river Saleph (Goksu) near Silifke. His death caused German morale to plummet, leading some knights to return home while others sailed to Tyre. This significantly weakened the German contingent.
49. What role did Frederick’s son, Frederick Duke of Swabia play?
Frederick Duke of Swabia led the remaining German troops to Antioch, where they suffered from an epidemic. Despite these hardships, he managed to lead his men to Acre before dying in January 1191.
50. Who took charge of the Germans following the death of Frederick’s son, Frederick?
Duke Leopold of Austria took charge of the remaining German forces after the death of Frederick Duke of Swabia.
51. What outcomes may have occurred had it not been for the death of Frederick?
Frederick Barbarossa’s leadership might have led to the earlier fall of Acre without French and Anglo-Norman help. Additionally, if the Germans had remained strong, there could have been 30,000 more troops available in 1191, potentially altering the course of the crusade.
52. What impact did the death of Frederick have on Saladin?
Saladin received a providential boost as the crusaders around Acre awaited the arrival of the French and English kings, which relieved some of the pressure on him.
Leadership and Internal Rivalries
Philip and Richard’s departure to Outremer
53. Where did the two kings meet and when was this?
The two kings, Philip and Richard, met at Vézelay on 2 July 1190.
54. What evidence is there of a lack of co-operation even prior to reaching the Holy Land?
Philip and Richard separated at Lyon, taking different routes. Philip fell ill in Genoa and tried to negotiate the loan of five galleys from Richard, but Richard only offered three, causing arguments to start. Additionally, Richard’s fleet was delayed due to looting along the Iberian coast.
55. Why was Sicily crucial to the potential success or failure of the Third Crusade?
Sicily was meant to serve as a launchpad for the crusade, and King William II had promised a substantial fleet to support the crusaders. However, his death in 1189 led to a succession crisis, weakening Sicily’s role as a key ally.
56. Why did Richard and Tancred come to blows in Sicily?
Richard insisted that Tancred pay the dower owed to his sister Joan after the death of William II. Tancred had not paid it, leading Richard to seize an island off Sicily and place Joan in a monastery. A conflict ensued, but Richard quickly took control and forced Tancred to settle the issue by paying the dower in exchange for Richard’s support against any potential invaders.
57. What positive could be taken for the crusade from Richard’s actions in Sicily?
Richard demonstrated his military prowess by taking Messina swiftly, showing his ability to win against the odds. He also secured financial and political agreements with Tancred, which ensured stability in Sicily before continuing the crusade.
58. Why might historians suggest that this was a negative moment for the relationship between Richard and Philip?
Philip played no part in the capture of Messina but still insisted on a share of the spoils, highlighting tensions between the two leaders. Additionally, Richard used the moment to inform Philip that he would not marry Alice (Philip’s sister) and had instead chosen Berengaria of Navarre, which likely deepened the rift between them.
Richard in Cyprus
59. How did Isaac Ducas Comnenus respond to Richard’s arrival in Cyprus?
Captured the first arrivals including Joan and Berengaria, angered Richard
60. How did Richard react?
Chased Isaac until he caught him, chained in silver and took to Cyprus – acted as safe haven for crusaders
61. What further evidence is there of Richard’s crusading prowess prior to arriving at Acre in 1191?
Rochard married Berengaria, received Guy, Geoffrey and contingent of Templars
Sailed to Outremer and arrived outside Tyre in June 1191, refused entry and left for Acre – sank a Muslim ship laden with supplies for garrison at Acre, arrived on 8th June 1191
The conclusion of the Siege of Acre – Remember, the Siege of Acre had been going on for nearly 2 years by the time it ended and had been happening during Richard and Philip’s preparations
62. What was the reaction to Richard arriving at Acre?
Given a rapturous reception upon his arrival at Acre on 8 June 1191.
63. What evidence is there of determination and spirit by Richard and Philip when they were ill?
Despite being bedridden with illness, possibly scurvy, both Richard and Philip demonstrated determination by continuing to fire crossbows at the enemy from their sickbeds.
64. What happened to the Muslim forces in July 1191 at Acre?
The Muslim forces in Acre surrendered on 12 July 1191 after offering terms to the crusaders. This was done against Saladin's wishes, as the garrison had had enough.
65. How did Richard insult Leopold of Austria and how did this impact him later in our story?
Richard insulted Leopold of Austria by having the Austrian banner removed from Acre after the city's capture. This angered Leopold, and later, when Richard was returning from Outremer in 1192/93, Leopold captured him and handed him over to Henry VI of Germany. Richard was eventually released in early 1194 after England paid a heavy ransom.
66. Why did Philip leave the crusade after capturing Acre?
Philip left the crusade on 31 July 1191, citing illness as the main reason. However, he also needed to return to stake his claim to Flanders following the death of the count of Flanders at Acre.
67. Why might Philip’s departure from the crusade have caused problems for Richard?
Philip’s departure gave Richard full control of the crusade, but it also left Richard vulnerable. With Philip back in Europe, he could cause trouble in Richard’s lands, despite having promised not to attack them. This promise was ultimately not kept, forcing Richard to keep an eye on events at home while still leading the crusade.
The Slaughter at Acre
68. What arrangement would be put in place to resolve the succession crisis in Jerusalem (Remember that this isn’t the city of Jerusalem as this is in the hands of Saladin – Just the Crusader State known as Jerusalem… but without Jerusalem…)?
Guy should keep crown until his death when Conrad would take over as he had married Isabella, legitimate heiress
69. What are the ‘terms of surrender’?
3,000 Muslim prisoners in Acre acted as manpower to rebuild defences and prepare for the march to Jerusalem
70. Why did Richard think that Saladin was not honour the terms of the surrender?
Stalling for time as he was failing to locate and hand over the True Cross as a sign of goodwill
71. What reasons do historians give as to why Richard changed his mind and slaughtered the prisoners?
One-month time limit was up, no sign of true cross, Christian prisoners or money – council was called and decision to slaughter them was made – ready to begin march south and couldn’t either take them or leave men to guard them
Acre took 2 years to capture, and men had spent a month enjoying its pleasures, aimed to reclaim Jerusalem
Military Success
72. What tactics did the Muslim powers use to harass the crusaders?
Horse archer harassed knights by firing arrows from safe distance, allowed them to be surrounded and killed, accompanied by cymbals, drums and bugles to confuse and disorientate crusaders
73. What evidence is there to suggest the leadership of the crusaders was particularly strong?
Kept to coast, escorted by ships sailing alongside supplies and injured
Close knit formation with infantry marching on outside to protect knights on horses, endured stifling heat
The Battle of Arsuf
74. Where did Saladin decide to attack Richard’s army?
Forest north of Arsuf, Richard had to keep exceptional control of men and hope for a chance to unleash the ‘charge’ because if mistimed it would be fatal
75. Why did the battle ‘not go according to plan’?
Two knights failed to hold their position under relentless bombardment of arrows
76. What evidence is there from Arsuf that Richard was an exceptional military leader?
Made quick decision to allow full charge which scattered Saladin’s forces, Richard was in thick of fighting and personal bravery inspired victory – Saladin had suffered two defeats at hands of Richard, no longer invincible – reached Jaffa within 3 days
Jaffa to Jerusalem
77. What evidence is there (from Conrad) that the Christian leaders were not unified in their approach?
Conrad demonstrated the lack of unity among the Christian leaders by strengthening his position in Tyre through a treaty with Saladin, which made it conceivable that they might attack Acre together.
78. How did Richard begin negotiating with Saladin?
Richard began negotiating with Saladin through Saladin’s charismatic brother, al-Adil, in the autumn of 1191.
79. What proposal did Richard suggest and why did Saladin believe him to be negotiating?
Richard proposed that his sister, Joan, marry al-Adil and that they rule Jerusalem together. Saladin recognised that Richard was stalling to rest his men and gather supplies, so he countered the offer by insisting that Joan convert to Islam, making the proposal unworkable.
80. Why was the winter of 1191 particularly challenging?
The winter of 1191 was particularly challenging due to miserable weather that caused food to rot and armour to rust, although morale remained high as efforts were focused on Jerusalem.
81. Why did Richard eventually decide not to besiege Jerusalem and what impact did this have?
Richard decided not to besiege Jerusalem because the Military Orders convinced him that his army would be caught between the city's defenders and a relieving force, making it a military disaster. This decision, though strategically sound, lowered the morale of his men.
82. What problems were mounting for Richard?
John was causing trouble in England, Conrad was attacking Guy, and there was no French army left to support the crusade.
83. Why did Richard’s negotiations with ad-Adil begin again following his attempts to gain support?
He failed to gather more troops to support his campaign after his attempts to mediate disputes between the Genoese, Pisans, Guy, and Conrad.
84. What did Richard the council decide about Conrad and Guy and their claims to Jerusalem?
Conrad should be king of Jerusalem as Guy commanded no respect from the local barons. As compensation, Richard gave Guy the island of Cyprus.
85. Why did Conrad not take the kingship of Jerusalem?
Assassinated before he could be crowned.
86. Why was the rumour of Richard’s involvement damaging to his position in Europe?
Involvement in Conrad’s assassination was damaging because it gave Philip an excuse to break his promises and cause trouble in France.
87. What evidence is there that Richard was willing to consider the views of others as leader of the crusade?
Frequently seeking advice from the Military Orders and holding councils to decide strategy, such as before withdrawing from Beit Nuba and choosing to target Egypt.
88. What evidence is there that Richard cleverly used reconnaissance to create opportunity during the crusade?
Richard’s use of reconnaissance was evident when he learned that an Egyptian army was moving north and used a night march to ambush them, seizing much booty and preventing reinforcements from reaching Saladin.
89. Why were there divisions in the crusader forces in July of 1192?
Differing strategic views, with the Military Orders and Richard’s forces wanting to target Egypt while the French preferred an attack on Jerusalem.
90. Why did both Saladin and Richard want to resolve the situation?
Saladin was under pressure after his defeats and needed to secure his position, while Richard needed to return to Europe to deal with threats from Philip and John.
91. Where did Saladin attack to try and split the Christian lands?
Jaffa to try to split Christian lands and weaken Richard’s control.
92. What evidence is there of strong leadership by Richard during the battles of Jaffa?
Personally lead a counterattack, rallying his men, and fighting fiercely despite being outnumbered.
93. Why did Richard need to leave to return to Europe?
Philip and John were conspiring against him, threatening his lands and rule.
94. What deal did Richard and Saladin strike?
Allowed Christians to access Jerusalem as pilgrims, while Saladin retained control of the city.
95. ANALYSIS – Who do you think won out of these negotiations?
96. Identify the positives of the Third Crusade:
- Richard’s victories secured Christian-held territories, including Acre and Jaffa.
- The treaty allowed Christian pilgrims safe access to Jerusalem.
- Richard’s military leadership was widely recognised.
- The crusade demonstrated the strength of the Military Orders and their strategic influence.
- Cyprus became an important Christian stronghold
SUMMARY TASKS
- List the evidence that suggests there were division between the Christian powers during the Third Crusade
- List the evidence of the successes made by the Christians during the Third Crusade
- List the evidence of failures or limitations of the Christians during the Third Crusade
- To what extent was Richard I the strongest leader of the Third Crusade?
- To what extent was Saladin able to succeed in preventing the Christian powers from succeeding during the Third Crusade?