In-Depth Notes on Skill Acquisition, Retention, and Transfer

Objectives of the Chapter

• Understand the principles of the skill acquisition process.

• Learn about two conceptualizations of learning stages during skill acquisition.

• Identify factors that influence skill retention after periods of no practice.

• Explore factors that influence the transfer of skills to new tasks or performance situations.

Principles of Skill Acquisition

• Effective Practice:

  • Distinction between repetition and true practice.

  • Importance of specificity: incorporating elements that aid learning.

  • Understanding the difference between learning and performance during practice.

  • Be cautious with phrases like "do as best as possible" during practice, as they may lead to undesired outcomes.

Benefits of Practice

• Improved capability in skill performance.

• Enhanced perceptual skills leading to better decision-making.

• Greater attention control via reduced capacity demands and effector competition.

• Development of more efficient motor programs.

• Improved error detection abilities.

Stages of Learning

• Fitts’ Stages: Focus on cognitive processes in motor performance as practice progresses.

• Bernstein’s Stages: Combine motor control with a biomechanical perspective to explain learning in motor skills.

Fitts’ Stages

1. Cognitive Stage:

   • Learning what, when, and how to perform the skill.

   • High attentional demands; useful tools include instructions and demonstrations.

   • Rapid early gains indicate discovery of effective performance strategies.

2. Fixation Stage:

   • Performance improves steadily, with decreased errors and more stable movement patterns.

   • Open skills become adaptable; closed skills may become rigid.

   • Better monitoring of feedback and error detection. Lasts longer than the cognitive stage.

3. Autonomous Stage:

   • Performance becomes expert-level with advanced motor programs.

   • Less attention needed for the task, allowing engagement in higher-order cognitive processes.

   • Increased self-confidence and refined error detection capabilities.

Bernstein’s Stages

1. Reduce Degrees of Freedom:

   • Simplification of movement by freezing non-essential body parts, leading to stiff movements.

   • Focused initial attention on fewer degrees of freedom (DOF).

2. Release Degrees of Freedom:

   • Improvement through releasing previously frozen degrees of freedom.

   • More fluid and independent movements develop.

3. Exploit Passive Dynamics:

   • Utilization of mechanical-inertial properties of limbs for effective and efficient movement.

   • Achieve maximal skill in terms of performance efficiency and effectiveness.

Skill Retention

• Long-term skill retention

  • Discrete tasks (high cognitive load) are quickly forgotten.

  • Continuous tasks are retained well over time, especially with original practice influencing retention.

Skill Transfer

• Transfer of skills improves with similarity between tasks:

  • Common Features for Transfer:

    • Similar movement patterns (e.g., throwing techniques).

    • Similar perceptual demands (e.g., understanding projectile motion).

    • Similar strategic or conceptual features (e.g., driving practices).

Part vs. Whole Practice

• Some complex skills require breaking down into manageable units:

  • Part Practice: breaks tasks into meaningful segments for practice before integration.

  • Progressive Part Practice: effective for serial tasks where components don’t interact.

  • Complex interactions reduce the effectiveness of part practice (e.g., golf swings).

Simulation and Transfer

• Simulators mimic real-world tasks and can be:

  • Elaborate and costly but essential when real practice isn't possible (e.g., in dangerous scenarios).

  • Important components of instructional programs, enhancing learning effectiveness.

Success Probability in Simulated Practice

• Evidence exhibited on the effectiveness of practice:

  • Comparison of success rates between simulator groups and no-simulator groups after specific hours of practice.