DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction WHAT IS DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY? • Developmental psychology explores the ways people grow and change across the lifespan, with a focus on biological, cognitive, psychological and social functioning • In this course, we will consider development from the moment of conception, right through to end of life • We will take a cultural perspective to understanding human development, recognising that “from the moment we are born all of us experience our lives as members of a culture (sometimes more than one), and this profoundly influences how we develop, how we behave, how we see the world, and how we experience life” (Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow, 2019) WHAT DO WE MEAN BY CULTURE AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? • Culture often thought of as a ‘set of unwritten rules’ that govern values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours among a social group • Culture can be thought of as learned behaviour that influences many facets of daily living and psychological constructs of interest such as emotional expression, focus on and expectations for non-verbal communication, how the self is viewed, rules for social interaction and social hierarchy, family structures, the fluidity of time, and many others WHAT DO WE MEAN BY CULTURE AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? Individualistic cultures Collectivist cultures Concept of self is defined as separate and independent from other/group Concept of self defined in relation to group Individual interests prioritised Interests of group prioritised Independence and autonomy of the individual valued Interdependence and reciprocal relationships of people within the group valued Pursuit and fulfilment of individual goals expected Pursuit of group goals, happiness and harmony expected Behaviour explained in terms of individual decisions and personal characteristics Behaviour explained in terms of adherence to group norms Accumulation of individual wealth and possessions Collective ownership of resources is the norm Leadership, competitiveness, aggression and achievement are normal Group conformity, obligation and a sense of duty are normal. Adapted from Table 2.1 Sonn et al., 2023 WHAT DO WE MEAN BY CULTURE AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? • Ethnocentrism explains how our own culture is likely to influence how we view and relate to the world • “The discipline of psychology is a product of Western society, and the way psychologists understand human behaviour is bound and limited by these same cultural contexts” (Sonn, Jayawardana, Keast & Burton, 2023) • APAC graduate attribute and professional obligation to be culturally competent in practice when working with Indigenous peoples and others from diverse cultures • Australia is multicultural society and psychologists are likely to work with clients from diverse cultural backgrounds. WHY STUDY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT? It is inherently interesting and allows us to understand ourselves (and others) better Provides informed/realistic expectations Enables appropriate responses to behaviour Understand what is considered normal/typical and deviations from the norm Foundation for advocating for rights of others to support optimal development and well-being DEVELOPMENTAL DOMAINS PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES Kimberley Cunial is an Educational and Developmental Psychologist, she explains: “Children often present with problems affecting their development across multiple domains. For instance, a child with autism may present with proprioception (body awareness) problems, social challenges, as well as learning difficulties. Each individual is unique and may be functioning at different and indeed multiple developmental stages across domains. This means a comprehensive assessment is needed to get a complete picture of strengths and weaknesses across all domains, and to inform a holistic intervention” (Sigelman, De George, Cunial, Rider, 2019, p. 15) HUMAN ORIGINS AND THE BIRTH OF CULTURE • Humans are one species but their lives and development across the world now vary greatly… • Humans, gorillas and chimpanzees believed to have shared a common ancestor until 6-8 million years ago • Our species Homo Sapiens evolved around 200 000 years ago • Have lived a hunter-gatherer way of life throughout most of our evolutionary history • Features that distinguished Homo Sapiens from other primates and earlier Hominids include: significantly increased brain sizes, wider pelvis for the females, longer dependency of infants, use of tools and fire This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA HUMAN ORIGINS AND THE BIRTH OF CULTURE • Physically, we are very similar to Homo Sapiens of 200 000 years ago but our lives now look vastly different • Distinct human cultures first developed in the Upper Paleolithic Period around 40 000 years ago • Began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants • 5000 years ago first civilisations appeared- with people residing in cities, writing, having specialised occupations, and centralised political systems • Now there are “hundreds of different cultures around the world, all part of the human community but each with its distinctive way of life” (Arnett, Chapin, & Brownlow, 2019) Photograph taken by Elissa Pearson at South Australian Museum Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Figure 1.1 World population growth WORLD POPULATION GROWTH • 18% of the total global population reside in developed countries (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, America, Canada, Japan) • 82% of the total global population reside developing countries, defined as “countries that have lower levels of income and education than developed countries but are experiencing rapid economic growth” (Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow, 2019) o 4 in 10 people globally live on less than $3 Australian dollars per day, and 80% of the global population have an annual family income of less than $9000 per year • A majority of population growth in coming decades will take place in developing countries – thus if we are to truly study ‘human development’ we must consider global development and not just developed countries where research has typically focused This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA SUMMARY • Developmental Psychology about understanding how people grow and change across the lifespan • Understanding development helps us to better understand ourselves and those around us, have more realistic expectations of behaviour and appropriate reactions, and underpins professional psychological practice • Despite our biological similarity to homo sapiens 200,000 years ago, we now live vastly different lives • Culture now recognised as a key influence on human development REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage Sonn, C., Jayawardana, R., Keast, S., & Burton, L. (2023). Culture and psychology. In L. Burton, D. Weston & R.M. Kowalski (Eds.), Psychology (6th Australian & New Zealand ed.). Wiley. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY OVERVIEW THEORETICAL ISSUES FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE ISSUES OF DEVELOPMENT Nature vs nurture Continuity vs change Individuals as active or passive Growth vs decline Developmental diversity vs universal principles of development Broad or narrow in scope FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY One of the earliest scientific theories of human development Freud saw psychological maladjustment as arising from unresolved childhood trauma, which became repressed but continued to impact personality and functioning For Freud, the critical period for events shaping our development was childhood and the primary force driving human development was sexual desire Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Table 1.1 Freud’s psychosexual stages Age period Psychosexual stage Main features Infancy Oral Sexual sensations centred on the mouth; pleasure derived from sucking, chewing, biting Toddlerhood Anal Sexual sensations centred on the anus; high interest in feces; pleasure derived from elimination Early childhood Phallic Sexual sensations move to genitals; sexual desire for other-sex parent and fear of same-sex parent Middle childhood Latency Sexual desires repressed; focus on developing social and cognitive skills Adolescence Genital Re-emergence of sexual desire, now directed outside the family FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY Freud’s psychosexual theory has been criticised for attempting to reduce the complexity of human behaviour to a single (sexual) motivation; for basing his theory of lifespan development on retrospective accounts of adult patients; and being sexist and overly influenced by his male perspective (e.g. notions of ‘penis envy’) Lasting contributions in terms of recognising the significance of early childhood experiences in shaping developmental trajectories ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY • Erik Erikson proposed a theory of development which extended Freud’s in two important ways: 1) It viewed development as continuing right across the lifespan 2) Erikson believed the primary force driving human development was not sexuality, but rather a need to become successfully integrated into society • Erikson proposed there are 8 key stages of development across the lifespan, with each stage characterised by a ‘crisis’ the person must overcome • Successful resolution provides solid foundation for the subsequent stage, while a maladaptive outcome increases the risk of being unsuccessful in navigating the following stage as well Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow, 2019. Used with Permission. Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Figure 1.6 Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY • Erikson’s ideas continue to have a lasting influence on our understandings of human development • Widely accepted that human development extends across the life course and that social and cultural factors and the desire to successfully operate within one’s social context are highly influential on a person’s development • However specific developmental stages and the crisis associated with each of these have received differing levels of support and ongoing research focus • For example identity as precursor to intimacy • Role of generativity in ageing well Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow, 2019. Used with Permission. BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY • Unlike Freud and Erikson, not a stage theory of human development • Bronfenbrenner’s interest was the interacting contextual influences which surround a person and shape the course of their development • Like other prominent theories, Bronfenbrenner recognised the critical role a child’s direct social environment (e.g. relationships with parents) has on their development BUT importantly also emphasised the interactions between systems and the critical role of cultural, historical and broader contextual influences Image source: https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/inappreciation-urie-bronfenbrenner Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Figure 1.7 The systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory CULTURAL-DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL • In this course we will take a cultural-developmental approach, which builds upon core aspects of Erikson and Bronfenbrenner’s work •We live in an increasingly globalised world- yet majority of developmental psychology research papers are based on US Samples (between 64-81%; Jensen, 2012) • How valid is this knowledge to the majority of the world’s population? • “It is necessary to study development across diverse cultures in order to have a full understanding of it. The biological basis of development is important in many ways, but it is culture that determines what we learn, what we aspire to become, and how we see ourselves in relation to the world” (Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow, 2019). This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY • Seeks to develop psychologies that are influenced by cultural contexts; that are developed from and within the culture; that are NOT imposed; and that result in locally relevant psychological knowledge and practice. • Indigenous Psychology in Australia honours Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing, being, and doing that have developed over >50, 000 years. Image source: Gee et al., 2014. SUMMARY • There is no single theory that can explain all facets of the human experience • Each theory offers different explanations and understandings • When applying theories, think critically about how well they apply to your population of interest • Also look to see what research evidence supports or challenges key assumptions of different theories REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Dudgeon, P., Alexi, J., Derry, K., & Selkirk, B. (2023). Indigenous Psychology in Australia. In L. Burton, D. Weston & R.M. Kowalski (Eds.), Psychology (6th Australian & New Zealand ed.). Wiley. Gee, G., Dudgeon, P., Schultz, C., Hart, A., & Kelly, K. (2014). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing. Working together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing principles and practice, 2, 55-68. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Jensen, L. A. (2012). Bridging universal and cultural perspectives: A vision for developmental psychology in a global world. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 98-104. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage HOW WE STUDY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Protection from physical and psychological harm Informed consent Confidentiality Deception and debriefing RESEARCH METHODS - QUESTIONNAIRES • Questions can be opened or closed – everyone responds to same questions, and for closed questions with same response options • Often validated scales used to study aspects of development • Can identify deviations from the ‘norm’ for individuals • Can be used to explore relationships between variables (e.g. TV viewing and language development; hours of outdoor learning and resilience) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY RESEARCH METHODS - INTERVIEWS • Provide qualitative data • People describe experiences in their own words, capturing richness and complexity • Requires coding for common themes (can be inductive or deductive) • Limitations: time, expense Source: Downe, S., Schmidt, E., Kingdon, C., & Heazell, A. E. (2013). Bereaved parents’ experience of stillbirth in UK hospitals: a qualitative interview study. BMJ open, 3(2), e002237. RESEARCH METHODS - OBSERVATIONS • Observe individuals in natural or laboratory environments • Observational studies common for studying infant cognitive development or attachment • Strength is focus on ACTUAL rather than reported behaviour • Limitation can be time-intensive and data collected can be influenced by observer effects RESEARCH METHODS – ETHNOGRAPHIC • Researchers immerse themselves in the lives of those they are studying- living with their study participants for months or years • Data collected includes observations, experiences and conversations • Focuses on what daily life is like in a particular geographical location and cultural context • Limitations: time, cost, potential misinterpretation/bias? RESEARCH METHODS – CASE STUDIES • Detailed exploration of an individual or small group of individuals (e.g. twins) • Advantages: detail, richness, can explore events or issues that would not otherwise be possible (e.g. psychological maltreatment, brain injury) • Limitations: can be difficult to generalise findings • HM – The Man with no memory RESEARCH METHODS – BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS Technological advances are allowing scientists to understand precise biological measurements and how these relate to our cognitive functioning, emotions, and relationships Examples include electrical activity in the brain, hormone levels, heart rate, cortisol, or sweat Rapid expansions at present in knowledge of the relationship between brain and behaviour Advantage - these measures difficult to fake! RESEARCH METHODS - EXPERIMENTS Experiments often used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions on aspects of development (e.g. efficacy of a parenting skills group) Participants randomly allocated to treatment or control group Collect data on variable of interest and compare across groups Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Table 1.2 Research methods: Advantages and limitations Methods Advantages Limitations Questionnaire Large sample, quick data collection Preset responses, no depth Interview Individuality and complexity Time and effort of coding Observations Actual behaviour, not self-report Observation may affect behaviour Ethnographic research Entire span of daily life Researcher must live among participants; possible bias Case studies Rich, detailed data Difficult to generalise results Biological measurements Precise data Expensive; relation to behaviour may not be clear Experiment Control, identification of cause and effect May not reflect real life Natural experiment Illuminate gene–environment relations Unusual circumstances; rare RESEARCH METHODS IN CULTURAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY • Emic perspective focuses on understanding psychological aspects of a particular group & using this to refine theories and generate new understandings • Etic approach looks for similarities and differences between cultures • Cross-cultural comparison studies involve investigating two or more cultural groups in relation to a psychological variable • Cross-cultural validation studies examine whether it is appropriate to apply a psychological variable or measure with a different cultural group • Unpackaging studies seek to understand and explain why cultural differences occur • Indigenous Psychology centres culture in the study of human behaviour and experience (Source: Sonn et al., 2023) RESEARCH DESIGNS • Cross-sectional studies take data at one time point and look for associations between variables • Limitation: correlation does not imply causation • Does ageing make us become more conservative? • Possibility of cohort effects (as depicted in hypothetical figure on right) RESEARCH DESIGNS • Longitudinal studies follow the same people over time with data collected on two or more occasions • Limitation: expense, attrition • Possibility of cohort effects • Sequential studies combine elements of each, studying two cohorts across at least two periods of time. • Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ALSA) • Growing up in New Zealand • Growing up in Australia: the longitudinal study of Australian children (LSAC) • Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (the Dunedin Study). SUMMARY • Developmental researchers have a range of research tools and methodologies at our disposal • We must consider the strengths and limitations of each approach and how appropriate these are to our particular research question • All research must consider ethical obligations • Greatest knowledge gains are made by comparing findings about a subject area using diverse methods REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Downe, S., Schmidt, E., Kingdon, C., & Heazell, A. E. (2013). Bereaved parents’ experience of stillbirth in UK hospitals: a qualitative interview study. BMJ open, 3(2), e002237. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage Sonn, C., Jayawardana, R., Keast, S., & Burton, L. (2023). Culture and psychology. In L. Burton, D. Weston & R.M. Kowalski (Eds.), Psychology (6th Australian & New Zealand ed.). Wiley. GENETIC INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT & PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND GENETIC BASICS • Our development has a genetic beginning • Each of us are born with about 23 000 genes in our 46 chromosomes; however not all of these are expressed • Genotype: organism’s unique genetic inheritance • Phenotype: organism’s actual characteristics derived from its genotype • Environment plays a role in genetic expression This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA RANGE OF REACTION Image: Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. THE SEX CHROMOSOMES • Sex chromosomes are different from the rest •Females XX, males XY • Child sex has social and biological consequences for development (e.g. many cultures favour boys; however boys are also more vulnerable to recessive disorders linked to the X chromosome). BEHAVIOUR GENETICS • Field which considers the extent to which genes influence behaviour often through twin and adoption studies • By comparing groups yield heritability estimates (ranges 0-1.00) • Intelligence estimated as 0.5 • Of course, heritability estimates capture how much the genes are able to be expressed (so can also be influenced by environmental factors) • Concordance rate also used to determine heritability of given trait (e.g. if proportion of identical twins sharing This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND trait is higher than fraternal twins, suggests genetic basis). GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS • Not only do genes influence our development but our environment can determine the way our genes are expressed • Epigenesis: bidirectional interactions between genes and environment in development • Theory of genotype – environment effects: proposes genes influence the kind of environment we experience • Passive • Evocative • Active This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT • Prenatal development begins with conception • The zygote that is formed is so small we could fit hundreds onto a pin head! Yet contains all of the genetic material already for that unique human being • Germinal stage from 0-2 weeks following conception • Estimated over 50% of blastocysts don’t implant successfully Stages of prenatal development • Conception • Germinal (0 - 2 weeks) • Blastocyst implants in uterus wall • Embryonic (3 - 8 weeks) • Umbilical cord connects embryo to placenta • Amniotic sac develops • Foetal • Week 9 to birth Image source: unknown Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development 1e PRENATAL CARE • Variations in prenatal care relate to varied infant and mother mortality rates globally • In developed countries mothers often screened and vaccinated if necessary against infectious diseases (rubella), prenatal vitamins prior to pregnancy • During pregnancy, prenatal care focuses on diet, exercise, avoiding teratogens, and fetal monitoring This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND TERATOGENS • Teratogen refers to behaviours, environments and bodily conditions that could be harmful to the developing baby • Embryonic period is a critical period for teratogen exposure, yet can be a time before expectant mothers are aware of the pregnancy • Globally most common teratogen is malnutrition (lack of food, lack of nutrients due to seasonal availability); infectious diseases • In developed countries- alcohol and smoking This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND Adapted from Moore & Persaud (2008) Critical periods Adapted from Moore & Persaud (2008) CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS • In about 0.5% of all births, the child will have a chromosomal disorder • Sex chromosome disorders can be linked to learning difficulties or abnormalities in the development of the reproductive system • Down syndrome occurs when there is an extra chromosome on the 21st pair • Parental age can be a contributor to chromosomal disorders This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC SUMMARY • Our development is shaped by both our genetics and our environment • These interact and influence one another in important ways • Heritability estimates help estimate to what degree a certain behaviour or trait is related to our genes • The embryonic stage is our most vulnerable period • Teratogen exposure varies by country REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Nilsson, L., & Hamberger, L. (2004). A child is born (4th edn.). US: Delacorte Press. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage

BIRTH AND THE NEWBORN CHILD This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY BIRTH • Particular risks for humans due to large size of infant & head • Different cultural traditions and rituals to protect and then welcome the mother and newborn child • In Australia majority of births now occur in hospitals • women have some choice over natural or medical methods • Access to health facilities for the delivery (or by transfer if required) associated with improved neonatal and maternal mortality rates Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development 1e • Differences in neonatal and maternal mortality both between developed and developing countries and also within countries • Maternal mortality rate >2x higher for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers in Australia NEONATAL AND MATERNAL MORTALITY NEONATAL HEALTH INEQUALITIES • Recent meta-analysis reviewed 51 studies, across 20 countries, based on pregnancy outcome data for over 2 billion pregnancies in high and middle income countries • Odds of preterm birth 1.65 greater for African-American and African-Caribbean mothers • Odds of small gestational size 1.39 greater for babies born to African-American and African-Caribbean mothers • Odds of stillbirth 2.16x higher • Odds of neonatal death 2.00x higher • Increased risk of preterm birth and neonatal death also observed for South Asian and Hispanic Women respectively • Discrimination and stress identified as potential contributing factors • Underscores interpersonal and structural barriers impacting on maternal and neonatal health (Sheikh et al., 2022) STILLBIRTH • Often not covered in developmental psychology textbooksperhaps due to the silence and stigma often associated with the topic • In Australia 6.7 stillbirths per 1000 live births (or 2200 Australian families each year) • Australia’s stillbirth rate has remained stagnant in recent decades, and is 30% higher than other developed countries (e.g. Finland, the Netherlands) • Some stillbirths may be preventable, with greater education for expecting mothers and also improved healthcare practice (monitoring, valuing maternal instinct) • Stillaware (2020) suggest 55% of women who experienced a stillbirth perceived a change in foetal movement prior to the diagnosis. • However, many women are not informed about the risk of stillbirth during their pregnancy or felt their concerns weren’t Image: appropriately responded to by clinicians https://stillaware.org/yourpregnancy/research BIRTH & NEWBORN HEALTH • First few moments after birth crucial • Newborn health checks: • APGAR • BRAZELTON BIRTH & NEWBORN HEALTH • Low Birth Weight is leading indicator of both survival and healthy development • Differences between pre-term vs small for dates • Small for date infants at increased risk of death in 1st year of life • Pre-term infants fare better than small for date but are vulnerable due to underdeveloped physical systems (e.g. ability to feed, breathe, immune system) • Kangaroo care beneficial NEONATAL REFLEXES • Babies are born with a number of important reflexes • Some have survival value: sucking or rooting, the moro reflex, grasping • Also important because neonatal reflexes are a precursor to voluntary movements; support learning; indicator of normal and healthy functioning Image: Pearson Copyright © 2023 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9780655704447 / Arnett / Human Development 2e NEONATAL SENSES • Sight is most underdeveloped sense at birth • Babies can recognise sounds and songs or stories as heard in the womb • Taste and touch well developed at birth • Babies typically prefer sweet tastes CARING FOR THE NEONATE - FEEDING • Breastfeeding has been primary means of providing sustenance to newborns throughout our evolutionary history • WHO recommends breastfeeding for 2 years if possible, with solid foods introduced from approximately 6 months • Breastfeeding rates vary widely between countries • Benefits include protection against disease, enhanced cognitive development, reduced obesity and long-term health outcomes • Breastfeeding particularly important where water quality is poor • Breastfeeding rates influenced by social systems, culture, education, maternal health, and necessary supports CARING FOR THE NEONATE - CRYING • For babies, crying is their primary form of communication • Longer and more intense in Western cultures where babies spend more time alone • Introducing new forms of sensory stimulation can be effective (change position, rocking, singing, run a bath, new sights or sounds) • Post-natal depression impacts up to 10% of mothers SUMMARY • The large head and brain of human infants presents increased risks for the birth process • Neonatal and maternal mortality is typically highest in developing countries, but wide variation is also observed even within developed countries • There are arrange of measures that help us to assess newborn health and these include the APGAR test, birth weight, and neonatal reflexes • Small for date babies tend to have poorer outcomes than preterm babies • Touch, sound, and taste are all quite well developed at birth, vision least developed • Feeding and crying are two key challenges associated with newborn care REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Department of Health (2020). Pregnancy Care for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women. Australian Government, retrieved from: https://www.health.gov.au/resources/pregnancy-care-guidelines/part-aoptimising-pregnancy-care/pregnancy-care-for-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-women#36-improvingoutcomes Sheikh, J., Allotey, J., Kew, T., Fernandez-Feliz, B.M., Zamora, J., Khalil, A., & Thangaratinam, S. (2022). Effects of race and ethnicity on perinatal outcomes in high-income and upper-middle-income countries: An individual participant data meta-analysis of 2 198 655 pregnancies. Lancet, 400, 2049-2062. Stillbirth Centre of Research Excellence (2020). Stillbirth Facts. Retrieved from: https://www.stillbirthcre.org.au/resources/stillbirth-facts/ Stillaware (2020). What is stillbirth. Retrieved from: https://stillaware.org/about-stillbirth/what-is-stillbirth DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development 1e More than in any other life stages, the daily life of infants is similar everywhere in some ways. INFANT DEVELOPMENT Domain Changes in Physical Body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, physical health Cognitive Changes in methods and styles of thinking, language and memory Emotional and Social Emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge of others, interpersonal skills, relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior PHYSICAL GROWTH • Physical growth in first year more rapid than at any other time in life • Operates on two key principles: Cephalocaudal principle Proximodistal principle BRAIN DEVELOPMENT • Brain development rapid in first year(s) of life • Within first 3 months, brain volume increases by 64% • Brain growth arises from 2 key processes: •Increase in production of dendritic connections between neurons (overproduction/exuberance) •Myelination • Specialisation begins to occur but plasticity remains high Copyright © 2023 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9780655704447 / Arnett / Human Development 2e Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development 1e MOTOR DEVELOPMENT • In just one year go from no voluntary movements, unable to hold up their own heads, to often taking their first steps! • Gross motor: development of balance and posture as well as whole-body movements like walking or crawling • Fine motor: development of finely tuned movements (e.g. grasping and manipulating objects with fingers and hands) • Gross motor development tends to follow a universal sequence • Sequence has genetic beginnings with environmental influences Image source: Hoffnung et al (2019) FOCUS ON CRAWLING • Crawling is a milestone with particular developmental significance • Cross-crawling (right foot, left arm) linked with brain development and communication across hemispheres, strength, balance, co-ordination, spatial awareness and also cognitive performance This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND SENSORY DEVELOPMENT • Perceptual development includes: Sensation (what the baby detects in response to sensory stimulation) and Perception (organisation and interpretation of sensory information) • Intermodal perception • Binocular vision begins about 3months of age enabling depth perception • Often assessed via the ‘visual cliff’, coincides with babies’ increasing physical competency SUMMARY • First year of life is a time of tremendous physical development, including internally within the brain and also externally in relation to physical growth • Research suggests that deprivation during this first year of life (especially if this persists beyond 6 months of age) is associated with ongoing implications for cognitive and social/emotional development • Motor milestones typically follow a common sequence across the first year of life but wide variation is common regarding timings • Cross-crawling is a particularly important motor milestone as it supports crossing the mid-line and integration and communication between both hemispheres of the brain • Intermodal perception also develops during first year of life REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Bahrick, L. & Lickliter, R. (2010). Perceptual development: intermodal perception. In E. B. Goldstein (Ed.), Encyclopedia of perception (pp. 754-756). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412972000.n242 Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Muir, N. & Bohr, Y. (2019). Contemporary practice of traditional Aboriginal child rearing: A review. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 14(1), 153–165. https://doi.org/10.7202/1071293ar Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC INFANT DEVELOPMENT Domain Changes in Physical Body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, physical health Cognitive Changes in methods and styles of thinking, language and memory Emotional and Social Emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge of others, interpersonal skills, relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • Introduction to Piaget • Learning Theories • Information Processing Approach • Infant Language Development This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Schemes: cognitive structures for processing, organising and interpreting information Schemes refined through two primary processesadaptation and organisation Assimilation: new information fit within an existing scheme Accommodation: changing the scheme to adapt to new information Balance between assimilation and accommodation varies across time PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT •Piaget’s first stage- the sensorimotor stage (age 0-2) • Emphasis on infants learning to coordinate sensory information with motor activities • 4 of the six sensorimotor substages in 1st year • 1 st = simple reflexes • 2 nd = primary circular reactions (focus on own body) • 3 rd = secondary circular reactions (focus on external objects) • 4 th = coordination of secondary schemes (intentional, goaldirected behaviour) • Major attainments intentional action and Object permanence This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA VIOLATION OF EXPECTATION Operates on assumption infants will look longer at an event that has violated their assumptions Violation of expectation demonstrated earlier than Piaget suggested infants capable of object permanence- may reflect physical competence hindering expression of cognitive capabilities. Adapted from R. Baillargeon & J. DeVos, 1991, “Object Permanence in Young Infants: Further Evidence,” Child Development, 62, p. 1230. In L. Berk 2013 Child Development. LEARNING THEORIES • Classical conditioning- innate voluntary reflexes make learning through classical conditioning possible for the infant (e.g. sucking) • Operant conditioning- reinforcement increases likelihood behaviour will occur again (e.g. efforts to communicate with caregiver rewarded by smile, affection or verbal response) • Social learning theory (observation and imitation) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH • Views cognitive change as more of a continuous process • Focuses on discrete processes of thinking • Operating on information as it moves through each part of the mental system increases likelihood of retention and application of new knowledge INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH • Joint attention emerges around 6 months • Infants follow pointing cues or eye gazes of adults and cue the adults attention with gestures • Significant as allows shared understandings, social referencing, and foundations for emotional and language development • Learn from others, share enjoyment • Children with on the Autism Spectrum often delayed in displaying joint attention LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY • Like physical development, significant cognitive development during the first year of life • During this time, babies acquire foundations of language; coordinate bodily movements and achieve motor milestones; begin to intentionally act upon their environment; understand basic properties of objects and object permanence; are developing schemes to understand the world around them; can remember events over several weeks; and habituate quickly to things they have seen before or expect, showing a preference for new and novel stimuli • Cognitive changes are supported by both brain development (previous presentation) as well as greater physical development and capacity of the infant to influence and interact with their environment REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA INFANT DEVELOPMENT Domain Changes in Physical Body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, physical health Cognitive Changes in methods and styles of thinking, language and memory Emotional and Social Emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge of others, interpersonal skills, relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior TEMPERAMENT • Infants differ on temperament- natural responses to the physical and social environment. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT • Primary Emotions: basic emotions shared with animals and all observed within first year of life • Secondary emotions: require social learning (e.g. shame, embarrassment, guilt). Develop mostly in second year of life. • Social smile appears between 2-3 months, followed by laughter • Fear increases around 6 months of age- may serve survival advantage as exploration increases • Emotional perceptions: over the first year infants increase proficiency at perceiving others emotions from visual or auditory cues • Social referencing- infants around 9-10 months of age will look to trusted figure to determine response to a novel situation SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT • Stranger anxiety usually appears by 6 months • Many (but not all) infants and toddlers wary of unfamiliar faces • influenced by temperament, past experiences, and the specific situation • Comforters or transitional objects can help ease separation difficulties ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY • 8 key stages of development, each with a psychosocial crises that must be overcome • First developmental challenge is trust vs mistrust • Need to establish a loving and stable connection to nurturing caregiver • Supports infant to develop sense of trust in others and their world and to feel worthy of love. • Developing trust viewed as foundation for future social development • Mistrust not only toward primary caregiver but also others in their social world. ATTACHMENT THEORY •Attachment: strong and enduring emotional bond that develops between infant and caregiver in first year of life… Characterised by reciprocal affection and a shared desire to maintain physical and emotional closeness (Hoffnung p 242- 243) • Primary caregiver sensitive and responsive for infant to develop sense of trust • Caregiver-infant synchrony important (closely coordinated integration between parent and child) • Primary attachment figure is sought out when child experiences distress or threat • Primary attachment figure serves as a SECURE BASE from which children explore their world ATTACHMENT THEORY • According to attachment theory, children develop an internal working model based on this relationship which influences future interactional patterns and expectations • Research evidence mixed re: lasting influences. Seems likely early attachment patterns can be modified by experiences later in life; however some evidence for intergenerational transmission + ongoing stress reactivity • Consistency and continuity of care important but infants can have multiple secure attachments • Some success with interventions (e.g. Circle of Security) with effect greatest for those most vulnerable This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY ATTACHMENT THEORY THROUGH A CULTURAL LENS • Attachment theory assumes a mother-infant dyad as the norm and emerges from countries which primarily have a ‘nuclear family’ structure • Notions of ‘family’ very different in many Indigenous cultures, not necessarily based on genetics, and relationships between child and extended family more multi-layered or a circle of care than dyadic • In many cases this is associated with increased responsiveness to child needs • Growing up Our Way study suggests parenting more child-led in many ways (e.g. no set routines, follow babies needs, more individual and child led, babies not left to cry, and co-sleeping and high degree of physical closeness the norm). Refs: Kruske et al., 2012; Muir & Bohr, 2019; Neckoway, Brownlee, & Castellan, 2007. SUMMARY • Babies differ with regard to their temperament, some are easier, some are more difficult, some are more active, some are more social, some are more adaptable etc • Foundation for later personality -> influencing & being shaped by our environment • Key aspects of emotional development in the first year include the social smile (2-3 months), increasing fear (around 6 months), and ability to read emotions/engage in social referencing (around 10 months) • According to Erikson the crucial developmental task in the first year is the development of Trust vs Mistrust in a caregiver(s) and the social world • Developing a strong emotional connection to caregiver(s) important for subsequent development – but what this looks like varies by culture

TODDLERHOOD PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN TODDLERHOOD BRAIN DEVELOPMENT • The toddler years are a time of continued rapid growth and brain development • Peak production of synapses in frontal lobes during toddlerhood (around age 3) • Appropriate stimulation of child’s brain is vital BUT needs to be age appropriate • Following peak, synaptic pruning begins SENSITIVE PERIODS • The early years of life are a critical period for language development • In Australia screening tests seek to detect early hearing impairments so treatment can begin early • Children without intervention before age 2 usually have lasting difficulties with both speech and language • The younger children are when they receive cochlear implants, the better the outcome Image from uichildrens.org MOTOR DEVELOPMENT • Dramatic motor advances in toddlerhood • By third birthday can run, adjust motion to changes in surfaces, climb, jump, and reverse motions • In toddlerhood, hand preference also begins to emerge • Explore mark-making, coordination of both hands, feed self or brush teeth, put on clothes MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MOTOR DEVELOPMENT • Toddlers are in Erikson’s stage of autonomy vs shame and doubt • Seeking to exercise new skill and competence in exploration and experimentation • Parents can support this by showing confidence in child’s growing capabilities • Provide “just right” supports SOCIALISING PHYSICAL FUNCTIONS Toilet training • Toddlers typically show readiness between 20-36 months • Child-led approach recommended • Occasional bed-wetting before age 7 not cause for concern Weaning • In Australia most infants wean during first year of life • In traditional cultures feeding into 2nd or 3 rd year common • Cultural weaning customs and practices INTEROCEPTION • One of our lesser known senses- helps you to feel and understand what’s happening inside your body • For some children with sensory processing difficulties, making sense of this information can be challenging • May not identify pain signals or when their bladder is full • May have trouble ‘feeling’ their emotions SUMMARY • Time of continued rapid growth of the brain – why our early years are so critical in shaping later development • Also a critical period for language development and why early hearing tests are so important • We also see significant gains in motor development- by the end of toddlerhood children can run, climb, jump, reverse motions, draw, engage in self care activities, and are also beginning to show a preference for us of right or left hand • Most toddlers are toilet trained by their 3rd birthday, using child-led approach • Some children with sensory processing difficulties may have challenges with interoception or the ability to feel and interpret signals from their body REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Mahler, K. (2020). What is interoception? Retrieved from: https://www.kelly-mahler.com/what-isinteroception/ Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage Sims, M., & Hutchins, T. (2017). Program planning for infants and toddlers (2nd ed.). Australia: Pademelon Press COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN TODDLERHOOD OVERVIEW • Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Information Processing Perspectives • Introduction to Lev Vygotsky and the Sociocultural Theory • Scaffolding and how adults can support cognitive development • Language Development This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA PIAGET’S STAGES OF INFANT/TODDLER COGNITION Table 4.7 Sensorimotor Substage Age Typical adaptive behaviours Reflexive schemes Birth-1 month Newborn reflexes Primary circular reactions 1-4 months Motor habits centred around the infants own body; limited anticipation of events Secondary circular reactions 4-8 months Actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world; imitation of familiar behaviours Coordination of secondary circular reactions 8-12 months Intentional action sequences; improved anticipation of events; imitation of behaviours slightly different to the usual; object permanence Tertiary circular reactions 12-18 months Exploration of object properties; imitation of unfamiliar behaviours; ability to search in several locations Mental combinations 18-24 months Internal representations of objects and events (sudden solutions to problems); invisible displacement; deferred imitation; make-believe play PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • Object permanence develops further, toddlers no longer make the ‘A not B’ search error • Deferred imitation: capacity to repeated actions observed at an earlier time • Toddler’s pretend play often reflects deferred imitation (e.g. play-kitchens, feeding and caring for babies) • Piaget believed deferred imitation emerged around 18 months but now evidence suggests actually much earlier • Mental representations form the basis of categorisation • Implications for supporting cognitive development This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND INFORMATION PROCESSING • As information moves through each stage, mental strategies used to operate and transform it, increasing likelihood of retaining information and using this effectively • Sustained attention increases in 2nd year as plans and activities increase in complexity •Executive function: cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals (e.g. directing attention, impulse control, co-ordinating information, planning) • Predicts later cognitive and social outcomes VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY • Children live in rich social and cultural worlds that influence their cognitive development in important ways • Language helps children think about mental activities and determine appropriate course of action to solve given problem or challenge • Children first acquire these capacities from more experienced peers or adults in their environment • Promoting stimulating physical environment not enough for early cognitive development. • Toddlers need opportunities to experience and interact with more skilled members of their culture This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY • Key concepts: scaffolding and zone of proximal development Zone of Proximal Development: range of capability a child can reach with some support Scaffolding: adjusting support offered to fit learner’s current level of performance This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC SUPPORTING COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • Learning experiences tailored to suit each child based on observations of their interests and development • Can use a developmental domains framework (goals for children under each domain of development) • Connect to children’s interests and build on previous experiences • Emergent curriculum- importance of children’s ideas, interests and spontaneity in the planning process. Develop joint learning and discovery. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 12-24 MONTHS • Average 18 month old can speak around 50 words (pragmatic words) • Generally single words at a time • Overextension and underextension common • 18-24 months learn 5-6 new words each week • Fast-mapping where words are remembered after hearing them just once • About 200 words by second birthday LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Image source: Sigelman et al (2019, p. 393) LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Image source: Sigelman et al (2019, p. 392) LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 24-36 MONTHS • Begin to use 3-4 word statements • Can talk about past and future events • Over-regularisation: applying grammatical rules to exceptions • Language development supported by language exposure (in language-rich environments) and reading • toddler directed speech varies with culture Look three “fishes” is an example of over-regularisation SUMMARY • Consistent with the brain development occurring during toddlerhood, this is also a time marked by significant cognitive advances • Toddlers develop increasing capacity for sustained attention and become little scientists investigating the world around them • Piaget emphasised the importance of the physical environment in supporting children’s cognitive development, while Vygotsky drew attention to the social and cultural influences (i.e. scaffolding and zone of proximal development) • Language development is also rapid at this age, supported by language-rich environments and social interactions as well as reading REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Arnett, J.J., Jensen, L.A., Chapin, L., Brownlow, C., & Machin, T. (2023). Human Development : A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage Sims, M., & Hutchins, T. (2017). Program planning for infants and toddlers (2nd ed.). Australia: Pademelon Press SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN TODDLERHOOD OVERVIEW • Development of secondary emotions • Emotion regulation • Awareness of self • Attachment • Erikson’s psychosocial theory • Growing social worlds EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT • Secondary emotions: require social learning (e.g. shame, embarrassment, guilt). Develop mostly in second year of life. • Development of self-conscious emotions coincides with awareness of the self as a separate and unique person • Expressing and labelling feelings important for emotional development EMOTION REGULATION • Strategies used to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level in order to accomplish goals • Requires effort and intentional strategies to regulate feelings • Increases in emotion regulation in second year of life correspond with brain development, increasing cognitive capacities, and social learning (especially parental support) • Emotion regulation increases with: 1. Use of language (e.g. sad) 2. Behavioural strategies (comforter, return to ‘secure base’) 3. Cultural rules and requirements 4. Sociomoral emotions motivate toddlers to actively avoid social consequences of emotional outbursts • Believed self-regulation emerges from co-regulation AWARENESS OF SELF • In toddlerhood, self-recognition emerges (e.g. child recognises reflection) • Growing awareness of the self as distinct from others and capacity for self-reflection • Between 18-30 months gender identity begins to form • Even prior to this infants are already exposed to varied gender stereotypes and expectations • Children learn cultural messages about gender roles in toddlerhood • Biological and cultural basis This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT IDENTITY • How we view the ‘self’ and whether we view this through an individualistic or collectivist lens shaped by culture • Western notions of self have often separated the individual from physical and social environments – reflected in how mental health or illness have been conceptualised • It has been argued Western notions of self see the individual as a separate and distinct vessel in which all of a persons attributes that make them who they are, are housed in the body • While Indigenous understandings of the self are often more relational, considering the ‘self’ as part of a greater whole in relation to social relationships and the environment Refs: Masters-Awatere et al., 2023; Sonn et al., 2023 CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT IDENTITY “Aboriginal peoples’ relationship with the land was, and continues to be, a key part of identity. Aboriginal peoples believed that people were not superior to, or separate from, the environment in which they lived. Rather, the people, the land, the water, the animals, the plants and everything around them were all part of the same fabric and shared a connection to ancestor spirits” (Dudgeon et al., 2023) ATTACHMENT • Assessed in toddlers using ‘strange situation’ between 12-24 months • Secure attachment: use mother as a secure base to explore, when mother leaves protests or cries, greet mother happily on return • Insecure-avoidant: little interaction with mother and don’t respond to her departure or return • Insecure-resistant: distressed by departure, ambivalent on her return • Disorganised-disoriented: characterised by unusual behaviour (anger, fear, may seem frozen in place) and child may appear dazed and detached. Associated with abuse or neglect. • Criticisms: child-effect and parent-blaming This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA ATTACHMENT ACROSS CULTURES • Mother-child as primary attachment relationship is not universal across cultures • Assumes a nuclear family structure, limited research with multiple caregivers • ‘Secure base’ may be the mother but may also be older siblings or other adults • Suggestion secure attachment leads to social competence – but how is social competence defined? • This is also culturally constructed • Parents in some cultures view their role as to shape the child into an adult, while other traditional cultures often have a stronger sense of destiny, allowing the child to become who they are/were meant to be • Influences intervening vs observing children’s development THE STRANGE SITUATION ACROSS CULTURES • Norms in some cultures are to anticipate and minimise infant distress BEFORE it occurs, impacts validity of eliciting distress by mother disappearing in this test? • In some cultures infant exploration is discouraged until after 2-3 years for safety reasons. A lack of exploratory behaviour may be incorrectly viewed as an insecure attachment • Cultures vary in the extent to which negative emotional expression is considered appropriate/respectful. Children may be assessed as having avoidant attachment if cultural norms for emotional expression are not considered. • “When considering the care and protection needs of a… child, child protection practitioners need to assess the relationship between… infants, children, and their caregivers according to the cultural parameters and values of their clients, in order to be in a position to reflect on the suitability of the assessment method” (Ryan, 2011) ERIKSON • Conflict of Toddlerhood – Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt • “I do it” stage • Successful resolution supported when parents provide suitable guidance and reasonable choices • Over or under-controlling parenting associated with maladaptive resolution SOCIAL WORLD OF THE TODDLER • Social world of toddlers begin to broaden and include siblings, peers and friends • Introduction of new sibling can be time of adjustmentbut often form secure attachments to siblings •Involvement of fathers varies greatly with culture • Trend toward greater father involvement in more Western countries (often more play-based than carebased) SOCIAL WORLD OF THE TODDLER • Interact with peers in formal or informal settings (playgroup, child care, mother’s groups) • Play becomes more social and interactive • Beginnings of friendships based on similarities- shared interests and emotions • Preference and emotional closeness with friends as opposed to peers • Toddlers begin to display empathy (responding to distress) and prosocial behaviour (kindness, sharing) AUTISM • Characterised by: (1) Lack of interest in social relations (2) Abnormal language development (3) Repetitive behaviour • Prevalence rates for Autism Spectrum Disorder estimated about 5 in every 200 children • Usually diagnosed during toddlerhood when social and language difficulties become more apparent This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC SUMMARY • The toddlerhood years are a time of substantial social and emotional growth • Children begin to have a greater understanding of who they are and how they fit within their society, they are capable of secondary (or social) emotions and are beginning to be able to name and regulate their feelings • With their physical and cognitive abilities increasing, they are becoming more autonomous and like to make choices about their actions and environments • Warm and nurturing relationships with their primary caregiver/s remain important but social relationships with peers and early friendships also begin to form at this age • How we understand development of the self, expressions of autonomy, and also attachment must be considered within the cultural context of each individual

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS • Brain & Body Growth • Illness and Injury in Early Childhood • Child Maltreatment • Gross and Fine Motor Development This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY BRAIN AND BODY GROWTH • Optimal growth dependent upon adequate health and nutrition • Average heights and weights vary between developed and developing countries due to poorer nutrition and higher likelihood of disease • Malnutrition and Obesity BRAIN AND BODY GROWTH • Brain development- 70% of adult weight at age 3 up to 90% by age 6 •Myelination drives continued brain growth • Aids rapid and efficient transmission • Supports gross and fine motor coordination • Enhances cognitive functions (attention, memory, planning, organising behaviour) • Frontal lobe development supports advances in emotion regulation and planning in preschool years INJURIES AND ILLNESS • In developing countries, leading causes of death are disease • In developed countries, life threatening illnesses are rare but children commonly experience minor illnesses (up to 10 times a year) • 97% of deaths in developing countries due to disease, with 3% accidental injury • Injury rates in developed countries actually lower than developing countries but is #1 cause of death due to fewer cases of illness CHILD MALTREATMENT IN AUSTRALIA • Child maltreatment encompasses both abuse and neglect • Physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect • In 2016-17, 1 in 32 children in Australia received child protection services. Rate is increasing • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are over-represented • Emotional abuse and neglect are the most common primary types of substantiated abuse and neglect • Most children (over 1/3) is these cases were from areas of the lowest socioeconomic status. • One in 5 children were the subject of multiple substantiations in 2014-15 Data from: Australian Centre for Child Protection, UniSA GROSS AND FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT • Continuation of skill development from toddlerhood • Boys often have superior strength while girls outperform boys in balance and coordination • Handedness DRAWING Figure 6.2 WRITING Figure 6.2 https://kids-first.com.au/handwriting-pre-writing-shapes-forpreschoolers/?doing_wp_cron=1584920765.9050290584564208984375 REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Kids First (2016). Pre-writing shapes for pre-schoolers. Retrieved from: https://kidsfirst.com.au/handwriting-pre-writing-shapes-forpreschoolers/?doing_wp_cron=1584920765.9050290584564208984375 Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS Piaget Theory of Mind Language Development COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET • Preoperational stage (2-7 years) • Move from sensorimotor activities to representational (or symbolic) thinking • Pretend play • Language • Characterised by expansions of thinking, as well as key limitations compared to older children and adults  Preoperational children described in terms of what they can and cannot understand  Not yet capable of operations (mental representations that obey logical rules) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC INABILITY TO CONSERVE Conservation: mental ability to understand certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same even when their outward appearance changes INABILITY TO CONSERVE Conservation: certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same even when their outward appearance changes Centration: focus/fixated on one aspect of the situation Irreversibility: inability to go through a series of steps in a problem then mentally reverse direction Image: https://sites.psu.edu/intropsychf19grp9/files/2019/10/Piaget-Conservation.jpg CLASSIFICATION • Piaget observed pre - operational children have difficulty understanding hierarchical classification (or that objects can be part of more than one group) • Asked children are there more yellow flowers or more flowers? • Again errors due to centration and lack of reversibility Image source: unknown EGOCENTRISM • Egocentrism – Unable to distinguish one’s own perspective with that of another’s  Tested by the three mountains task • Piaget believed that children under 8 years lack a theory of mind • More recent research has questioned age-appropriateness of task and confounding spatial abilities with understanding of another’s perspective • When introducing practice & familiarity performance improved compared to Piaget’s initial protocol THEORY OF MIND (METACOGNITION) Theory of Mind: Ability to understand thinking processes in self and others Perspective-taking increases significantly across the preschool years Around 4 years realise others may have false beliefs Baron-Cohen, Leslie and Frith (1985) LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT • Vocabulary continues rapid advancement, more than doubling from age 3 to 6 • Children understand and apply grammatical rules by simply hearing language in daily interactions (e.g. single/plural forms; tense; word order; use of articles and prepositions) • Berko’s language study demonstrated children can apply rules of grammar to novel situations • Pragmatics: what is acceptable or unacceptable to say in given social situation REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS Emotion Regulation Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Moral Development Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour Parenting Styles Peers and Friendships EMOTIONAL REGULATION •Emotional self-regulation: ability to exercise control over one’s emotions • Enhanced ability to infer emotional state of others and to regulate own emotions • Supported by frontal lobe development and awareness of strategies for managing emotions (effortful control) • Under-control or over-control can be problematic • Externalising problems are directed toward others (e.g. aggression) • Internalising problems are self-directed when healthy emotional expression does not occur (turn distress inward) and may result in anxiety or depression Stage 4 Stage 3 Industry vs. inferiority Stage 2 Initiative vs. Guilt Stage 1 Autonomy vs. shame & doubt Trust vs. mistrust Is my world predictable and supportive? Can I do things myself or must I rely on others? Am I good or am I bad? Am I competent or am I worthless? 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-6 years 6 yrs -puberty ERIKSON’S STAGES DURING CHILDHOOD • Crisis of pre-school years is: Initiative vs Guilt • Children assert control and initiative over the social and physical environment • Explorations rewarded with success lead to sense of purpose • Threats and criticism can lead to guilt and sense of failure MORAL DEVELOPMENT • Sociomoral emotions emerge in toddlerhood, shaped by cultural standards • Capacity for empathy and prosocial behaviour increases during the preschool years (think back to cognitive development and perspective taking) • Understanding and application of moral principles such as fairness or avoiding harm • Preschoolers more capable of anticipating the consequences of their actions and avoiding those which would be met with disapproval • Social learning and modelling important • By observing behaviour (and importantly its consequences) children learn the principles of moral conduct for their culture This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND Aggressive Model vs Prosocial Model SOCIAL LEARNING Bobo doll experiment (Bandura et al., 1961) • When exposed to aggressive model = increased imitative aggressive behaviour. • Boys x3 more likely to replicate physically violent behaviour. • Children exposed to verbally aggressive role models were more likely to imitate this behaviour. boys = girls. • Subjects exposed to the non-aggressive model, or no model, showed little imitative aggressive behaviour. RESULTS FROM MODELLING STUDIES Mean imitative aggression scores for children Bandura et al, 1963 * The contribution of reward and punishment ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR • Antisocial behaviour intentional negative actions directed toward others which cause physical or emotional harm • Instrumental aggression: snatching, pushing to get to front of line • Hostile aggression: intent to harm a person • Physical (biting, hitting, kicking) • Verbal (teasing, threats) • Relational aggression (damaging relationships) • Antisocial behaviour requires early intervention at level of family PARENTING RELATIONSHIPS • Ideally parent-child relationships should be warm, empathic, respectful and mutually responsive • In Australia (as for other individualist cultures) parents must often devise own standards for parenting • Often influenced by personal upbringing with no formal preparation • Challenge due to conflicting media advice and changes across time This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC PARENTING STYLES • Lots of research into parenting styles and impacts on children • In Western cultures (incl Australia), authoritative associated with positive outcomes for children PARENTING STYLES PARENTING STYLES • Lots of research into parenting styles and impacts on children • In Western cultures (incl Australia), authoritative associated with positive outcomes for children • Parents can display different styles on different occasions • Can be variations between parents of same children • Cultural context matters! PEER RELATIONSHIPS • Social worlds expand rapidly during preschool years • Mead’s classification (moving from ‘lap child’ to ‘knee and yard child’) • Conceptions of friendship • a friend is someone who plays with you, shares toys, likes you • by age 5-6 friendship characteristics become more dispositional (e.g. trustworthy, dependable, kind to you) • Gender segregation common This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE • High quality care can enhance problem-solving, language, numerical skills, social competencies • Characteristics of high quality care = indoor and outdoor space with diversity of items stimulating different types of play, <20 children, ratios 1: 6 or less, qualified educators, choice and agency, long periods of uninterrupted time, ample space for active play, minimal transitions • Low quality associated with poorer socialemotional outcomes • Care in Australia guided by the Early Years Learning Framework Image: https://aussiechildcarenetwork.com.au/eylf-templates/forms-and-checklists/eylf-outcomes-checklist REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, Carol K. & George, De Linda. & Cunial, Kimberley. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage PLAY IN THE EARLY YEARS PLAY • Evolved behaviour seen across many species • Way of learning skills and social rules for adulthood. • Associated with development of motor, cognitive, language, social and emotional skills • Some fear the push for early instruction and academic outcomes may be taking time away from children’s play • Important for self-initiative, intrinsic motivation to learn • Academic instruction at young ages can be detrimental to anxiety levels, interest in learning, lower creativity and short-term gains in literacy or numeracy often don’t persist This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC TYPES OF PLAY Locomotor play (chase, ball games) Object play (trains, dolls, blocks) Social play (playing games) Sociodramatic play (enacting roles) PARTEN PLAY CATEGORIES • Play becomes increasingly social between ages of 2-5 • Associative and social play increase in the preschool years • However, older children do still engage in solitary play (for skill building) and may use onlooker or parallel play as a means of entering a new play scheme or group MAKE BELIEVE PLAY • Piaget believed children practice and strengthen their mental representations – or schemes- through the process of play – especially the Pre-operational stage • With increases in symbolic representation play includes more complex combinations of schemes Follows typical pattern  Increasingly detaches from real life  Becomes less self-centred  Includes more complex combinations of schemes  Sociodramatic play (make believe with others)  By primary school – building on one another's ideas, create and coordinate several roles, understand story lines  Requires ‘theory of mind’, perspective taking, impulse control

THE CHANGING NATURE OF CHILDHOOD Developmental Psychology Summary of learning • Why study development? • Introduction to developmental psychology theories • Leading theoretical approaches (e.g. contextual theories, cognitive theories, behavioural theories) • Development across key domains (physical, cognitive, social/emotional) • Key developmental milestones from the prenatal period to middle childhood • This week in depth exploration of contemporary developmental issue in childhood WHY THE CHANGING NATURE OF CHILDHOOD? Contemporary issue receiving increasing attention from allied health professionals, parents and educators Evolutionary Perspectives 2.5 million years ago – Evolution of genus Homo in Africa 12 000 years ago –Agricultural revolution 200 years ago – Industrial revolution 50 years ago – Digital revolution Gray, 2013; Harari, 2015 Modern Living • In 2008, for the first time in human history, the majority of our global population lived in towns and cities rather than rural environments (Louv, 2012). • The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, predicts that over two thirds of the world population will live in urban areas by 2050 (UN DESA, 2018) Evolutionary Perspectives “Greater than 95% of our tenure as humans has been spent living in intimate contact with the non-human world. Our bodies, minds, and emotions were fashioned by evolution in wild places where a deep sense of connection was essential for survival. The key question, then, is this: here in the 21st century, can we be healthy without meaningful experiences of nature ?” (Sampson, 2016) “Nature is where we are from and where we belong, and our survival is intricately linked to its existence. For children it is the greatest playground of all, with all its diverse structures, smells, textures, its creatures of all shapes and sizes… Nature offers a myriad of opportunities for risk-taking, for a wealth of learning & amazement, and for freedom, separate from the adult world” (Houghton & Worroll, 2016, p. 4) Increasingly indoors • Began this week with childhood memories… • Average outdoor time a generation ago, upwards of 4 hours • How has that changed in the past generation? • Outdoor time estimates often under an hour daily in Western countries • Decreasing home-ranges and independent movement (e.g. Hand et al., 2018; Kytta et al., 2015) • Increase in children’s space indoors at home, corresponding with decreased outdoor neighbourhood spaces for children (e.g. Karsten, 2005) Increasingly sedentary • Some studies have found outdoor time for children to be as little as 10 minutes a day (Sampson, 2016) • Estimates US school-aged children spend as many as 9 hours a day sitting (Hanscom, 2019) • Biggest drivers- academic instruction through formal schooling and screen time Department of Health: Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Young People Toddlers (aged 1–2 years) Physical activity: At least 180 mins spent in a variety of physical activities including energetic play, across the day; more is better Sedentary Behaviour: Not being restrained for more than 1 hr at a time (e.g., in a stroller, car seat or high chair) or sitting for extended periods. For those aged 2 years, sedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better. Pre-schoolers (aged 3–5 years) Physical activity: At least 180 mins in a variety of physical activities, of which at least 60 minutes is energetic play, across the day; more is better Sedentary behaviour: Not being restrained for more than 1 hr at a time (e.g., in car seat) or sitting for extended periods. Sedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better. When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged Children and young people (aged 5–17 years) Physical activity: Accumulating 60 minutes or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day involving mainly aerobic activities; Several hours of a variety of light physical activities Sedentary behaviour: Limiting recreational screen time to no more than 2 hours per day; Breaking up long periods of sitting as often as possible Findings from National Health Survey • The Australian Health Survey 2011-12 indicates that only one-third of children, and one in ten young people undertook the recommended 60 minutes of physical activity every day. • Two thirds of Australian children and young people (5-17 year olds) exceeded the recommendation of “no more than 2 hours of screen-based entertainment” every day. • On average, children and young people aged 5–17 years spent more time (average of 136 minutes daily) on screen time than they did physical activity, with physical activity decreasing and screen-based activity increasing as age increased. Screen time • In the US pre-schoolers spend around 32 hours per week in front of the box (more than 4.5 hours per day!) • For older children, some estimates suggest upwards of 7 hours daily for children staring at screens • Estimates many boys accumulate 10,000 gaming hours before turning 21 (Louv, 2008) Do you recognise these? Can you name these? Screen time • In the US pre-schoolers spend around 32 hours per week in front of the box (more than 4.5 hours per day!) • For older children, some estimates suggest upwards of 7 hours daily for children staring at screens • Estimates many boys accumulate 10,000 gaming hours before turning 21 (Louv, 2008) • Children better able to recognise Pokemon characters than local wildlife (Balmford, Clegg, Coulson & Taylor, 2002) • When we grow up recognise greater than 1000 corporate logos from media-based advertising, but fewer than 10 plants native to the region (Miller, 2005)? • Does it matter? WHY? CHANGING WORK CONTEXTS WHY? OVERSCHEDULED WHY? SAFETY CONCERNS (STRANGER DANGER) WHY? PUSH FOR ACADEMICS WHY? PERCEPTION LEARNING OCCURS INDOORS Summary • This presentation has explored some of the changing contexts for children’s development in recent generations • “Many children… overscheduled, overprotected, and over-screened- living under effective “house-arrest” (Sampson, 2016) • Next, we focus in more detail on the relationship between these changes and aspects of development or adverse developmental outcomes References Balmford, A., Clegg, L., Coulson, T., & Taylor, J. (2002). Why conservationists should heed Pokémon. Science, 295(5564), 2367-2367. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn). Boston, USA: Pearson. Gray, P. (2013). Free to learn. New York, USA: Basic Books. Hand, K. L., Freeman, C., Seddon, P. J., Recio, M. R., Stein, A., & van Heezik, Y. (2018). Restricted home ranges reduce children’s opportunities to connect to nature: Demographic, environmental and parental influences. Landscape and Urban Planning., 172, 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.12.004 Hanscom, A. (2019). The decline of outdoor play in children and the rise in sensory issues. Keynote presentation at the International Association of Nature Pedagogy Symposium. March 29-30, Marnong Estate. Harari, Y.N. (2015). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. New York, USA: Harper. Houghton, P., & Worroll, J. (2016). Play the forest school way: Woodland games, crafts and skills for adventurous kids. London, UK: Watkins. Karsten, L. (2005). It all used to be better? Different generations on continuity and change in urban children’s daily use of space. Children’s Geographies, 3, 275-290. Kytta, M., Hirvonen, J., Rudner, J., Pirjola, I., & Laatikainen, T. (2015). The last free-range children? Children’s independent mobility in Finland in the 1990s and 2010s. Journal of Transport Geography, 47, 1-12. Louv, R. (2012). The nature principle: Reconnecting with life in a virtual age. North Carolina, USA: Algonquin. Louv, R. (2008). Last child in the woods: saving our children from nature-deficit disorder. Chapel Hill, NC : Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill Miller, J. R. (2005). Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20(8), 430-434. Sampson, S.D. (2016). How to raise a wild child: The art and science of falling in love with nature. New York, USA: Mariner Books. WHY NATURE & MOVEMENT MATTERS Impacts on Child Development Impacts on Child Development • TedXTalk by Angela Hanscom • Nature Deficit Disorder “describes the human costs of alienation from nature, among them: diminished use of the senses, attention difficulties, and higher rates of physical and emotional illnesses” (Louv, 2008, p. 36) • Not intended or recognised as an official diagnostic label but rather to reflect upon and discuss this growing phenomena • Contextual developmental theories recognise development interacts with the context in which it occurs (Berk, 2018) Image: https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/br onfenbrenner-ecological-theory/ (Warden, 2015) Developmental Challenges • Fidgeting/Difficulty paying attention • Decreased strength • Poor posture • Decreased stamina • Frail • Falling • Endless colds • Too much force • Trouble regulating emotions • Increasing Anxiety, Depression, ADHD • Myopia Physical and sensory development • Explore physical and sensory development in some depth this week as often under-valued how this supports, or even underpins, development in cognitive and social-emotional domains • Connection between movement and learning • Complex interplay across developmental domains • Need to remind ourselves of the relationship between the physical environment and opportunities for cognitive and physical development or put another way, the physical environment profoundly influences sensory development and motor skills Physical and sensory development: Reduced activity Obesity rates • One third of all US children and adolescents overweight, with half of these classified as obese or morbidly obese (Berk, 2018) • In China, obesity was almost non-existent one generation ago, while now 1 in 5 are considered overweight today (Berk, 2018) • The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reports that 1 in 4 Australian children (between the ages of 2-17) were overweight or obese in 2014-2015 • Obesity rates generally increase with age and childhood obesity is a strong predictor of lifelong obesity and chronic health challenges (AIHW, 2018) Physical and Sensory Development: Restricted Types of Movement • Flat ground, equi-distant ladders and structures, repetitive injuries • “Children need to move in ways that make adults gasp” (Angela Hanscom) • Reduced opportunities to spin, flip, twist, and do “heavy work” which support healthy development of the vestibular system and proprioception The Vestibular System • Key to all other senses and sensory integration • Feeds into the limbic system – centre for emotions – helps with emotional and activity regulation • Turns brain on to pay attention – reticular activating system • Why kids fidget • Supports eye muscles, tracking, and subsequent reading • We are saying “don’t spin”, “get down from there”, “be careful” • Kids are becoming more and more unsafe • Requires frequent movement to stay healthy (like heart health) (Abraham, Heffron, Braley, & Drobnjak, 2015) Proprioception • Understanding of limbs in relation to each other • Helps us to regulate pressure/force • Helps us to navigate/bodily awareness • Strengthened through “heavy work” which provides resistance/sensory stimulation to the joints and muscles (Abraham, Heffron, Braley, & Drobnjak, 2015) Sensory Integration • Intermodal perception refers to the process of making sense of concurrent input from 2 or more sensory modalities as an integrated whole (Berk, 2018) • Crucial component of perceptual development for babies to notice meaningful correlations between sensory inputs (e.g. rattle moving and sound) • Nature provides richer and full-body sensory experiences (wind, orient ourselves to bird and other sounds) • Also fosters a calm, alert state where sensory integration most likely (Hanscom, 2019) Physical and sensory development: Myopia • Berk (2018) explained this is the most common vision problem in middle childhood • Impacts 25% children, increasing to 60% by early adulthood • Globally, myopia increases with more time reading, writing, and on screens (Dolgin, 2015) • Reduced by time spent outdoors and opportunities to focus into the distance • Particularly problematic in Asia Physical and Sensory Development: Immune Function • The hygiene hypothesis • Soil bacteria and immunity • M.vaccae “friendly bacteria” often found in soil • Dirt increases seratonin and immune function Social & Emotional Development- Mental Health • Increasing rates of anxiety and depression in children around the world • Increasingly medicated, labelled • 14% of Australian children (aged 4-17 years) have experienced mental illness (Lawrence et al., 2015) • Natural settings • Attention restoration theory (Kaplan & Kaplan) • Fascination rather than directed attention • Natural settings now being utilised as healing spaces for recovery from trauma Psychosocial DevelopmentSelfunderstanding • Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1.5 – 3yrs) • Initiative vs Guilt (3-6yrs) • Industry vs Inferiority (6-12yrs) Erikson Berk, 2018 SELFCONCEPT What will be the most important skills of the future? PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTCHILDREN AS CAPABLE AND COMPETENT? (EYLF, 2014) Managing Risk • Think in terms of comparative risk • Immediate risk vs Lifelong risks • Huge psychological, physical, and spiritual risks in raising future generations indoors (Louv, 2012) • Balancing safety against intention to raise courageous, resilient children and young adults • Risks vs Hazards (Harper, 2017) Social & Emotional Development- Resilience “Research on resilience- the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to developmentis receiving increased attention as investigators look for ways to protect young people from the damaging effects of stressful life conditions” (Berk, 2018, p. 10) Social & Emotional DevelopmentConnectedness & Belonging • “We must continually remind ourselves that humanity, although spectacular and unique in many of its expressions, is not outside and above the natural world, but embedded deeply within it” (Sampson, 2016, p.29) Social & Emotional DevelopmentInterpersonal relationships and prosocial behaviour • The loss of free-play, especially neighbourhood play, has also limited opportunities for mixed age play (Gray, 2013) • Research suggests this type of play differs in important ways from same-age play • Typically more nurturing, co-operative • “Natural settings seem to foster warmer, more cooperative relations” (Kuo, Barnes & Jordan, 2019) The loss of free play “Free play is the means by which children learn to make friends, overcome their fears, solve their own problems, and generally take control of their own lives. It is also the primary means by which children practice and acquire the physical and intellectual skills that are essential for success in the culture in which they are growing. Nothing that we do, no amount of toys we buy or “quality time” or special training we give our children, can compensate… The things that children learn through their own initiatives, in free play, cannot be taught in other ways” (Gray, 2013, p. 5). Cognitive Development: Piaget • A lasting legacy of Piaget’s work was inspiring a vision of children as innately motivated explorers whose understanding of the world around them develops as they act directly on their environment • Discovery learning, exploration (Berk, 2018) Cognitive Development: Information Processing • Movement supports attention, memory, retention • Episodic vs semantic memory – which contexts support greater learning? • Executive functioncontrolling/restoring attention and inhibiting impulses (Kuo, Barnes & Jordan, 2019) Image: https://www.tcd.ie/Education/ICT/unit02/explanation03b.htm Cognitive Development: Vygotsky • Many aspects of cognitive development are socially mediated • Children represent culturally meaningful events and understandings through play • Held that make-believe play was a unique and critical zone of proximal development, enabling children to acquire new understandings and competencies • Make-believe play occurs more often and complexity of play is richer where mixed-age play more common (Berk, 2018) Cognitive Development: Creativity • “Nature is imperfectly perfect, filled with loose parts + possibilities” • Researchers have shown that children who play in natural spaces, compared with flat playgrounds or playing fields are more likely to invent their own games and rules- an essential element in developing the capacity for “executive functions” in the early years. (Louv, 2012) Cognitive Development: Creativity • Nicholson’s loose parts theory: “In any environment, both the degree of inventiveness and creativity, and the possibility of discovery, are directly proportional to the number and kind of variables in it” • Open-ended objects. Able to be used in many ways and combined with other loose parts through imagination and creativity Nature Playgrounds • What different opportunities do these spaces afford? Summary • Growing body of evidence suggests children’s development is being impacted by a loss of outdoor play and movement and the concurrent increase in screen time and sedentary behaviour • During this presentation have explored this across physical, social/emotional, and cognitive domains- connecting back to theories of development and developmental challenges covered so far in the course “Time in nature is not leisure time; it’s an essential investment in our children’s health

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD • Sensory Development • Motor Development • Rising obesity • Brain Development This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND SENSORY DEVELOPMENT • Hearing often improves • Vision can decline due to myopia • Myopia impacts 1 in 4 children This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT • Greater physical strength, balance, coordination, synchronisation of body parts, speed/agility, precision, endurance and reaction time •By end of middle childhood nearly reached adult maturity with regard to fine motor development and writing and drawing ability • 60% of Australian children aged 5-14 play at least one organised sport • Yet, many still fall short of overall physical activity guidelines • Time of lower illness and injuries MALNUTRITION AND OBESITY • In developed countries, nutritional issues in middle childhood often arise from too many rather than too few calories • overweight and obesity risen sharply in recent decades • change in diets, fast food, pace of family life, screen media • 80% of obese children are overweight in adulthood • Obesity predictor of negative social and emotional outcomes later in life BRAIN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT • Size approaches adult • Key developments: • Myelination: growth in frontal and reticular areas (attention and executive function) • Grey matter changes; inverted u-shape; reflects ‘pruning’ Correlation between IQ and cortical thickness Shaw et al. (2006) Nature Lenroot & Giedd, 2006 CORTICAL GROWTH • Size approaches adult • Key developments: • Myelination: growth in frontal and reticular areas (attention and executive function) • Grey matter changes; inverted u-shape; reflects ‘pruning’ • Lateralisation  Hemisphere of the brain connected by corpus callosum  Corpus callosum growth continues  Facilitates transfer and coordination across hemispheres This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Teicher et al. (2004), Biol Psychiatry REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral reviews, 30(6), 718-729. Shaw, P., Greenstein, D., Lerch, J., Clasen, L., Lenroot, R., Gogtay, N. E. E. A., ... & Giedd, J. (2006). Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents. Nature, 440(7084), 676- 679. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage Teicher, M. H., Dumont, N. L., Ito, Y., Vaituzis, C., Giedd, J. N., & Andersen, S. L. (2004). Childhood neglect is associated with reduced corpus callosum area. Biological psychiatry, 56(2), 80-85. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Piaget Information Processing Intelligence This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • Defining characteristic is children are capable of mental operations (can organise and manipulate information mentally) • Can solve problems involving conservation, classification and seriation • Seriation: ability to arrange things in logical order (e.g. length, weight, shade) INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL Response Generator Sensory Register Represents sights and sounds directly & stores them briefly Working/shortterm Memory Holds limited amount of information that is worked on to facilitate memory and problem solving Long-term Memory Stores information permanently Response output Stimulus input Central Executive • Conscious part of the mind • Coordinates incoming information with information in the system • Controls attention • Selects, applies, & monitors the effectiveness of strategies • Automatic process Attention Storage Retrieval Adapted from Berk L (2006). Child Development INFORMATION PROCESSING: ATTENTION Attention  Ability to focus  Maturation of prefrontal cortex Selective attention  Screen out distraction and focus on task at hand Attention becomes more sustained, efficient, and flexible Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder  Inability to focus INFORMATION PROCESSING: MEMORY • Working memory capacity enlarges • Mneumonics employed (memory strategies such as rehearsal, organisation, and elaboration) • Rehearsal: repeating information over and over • Organisation: placing things in meaningful categories • Elaboration: transforming bits of information in a way that connects them and makes them easier to remember (ROYGBIV) • Memory improves as knowledge base expands • Meta-memory: understanding of how memory works This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES • Individual differences most commonly assessed via tests of intelligence • Intelligence: capacity for acquiring knowledge, reasoning and solving problems • Genetically based reaction range for intelligence, environmental influences shape expression of that potential INTELLIGENCE TESTS • Wechsler scales most commonly used (WISC) • IQ good predictor of school performance BUT narrow focus • Other intelligences • Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligences • Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development 1e INTELLIGENCE TESTS • Wechsler scales most commonly used (WISC) • IQ good predictor of school performance BUT narrow focus • Other intelligences • Gardiner’s theory of multiple intelligences • Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence o Analytical o Creative o Practical REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD • Understanding emotions • Understanding Self • Erikson • Peer relationships EMOTIONAL REGULATION • Emotional self-regulation: ability to exercise control over one’s emotions • Emotional regulation continues to advance, with middle childhood being a period of relative emotional stability • Generally marked by high well-being and low volatility • Increased external demands for regulation (e.g. school, sport) • Enhanced emotional understanding for self and others • E.g. will express gratitude for gift the child doesn’t like This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC SELF UNDERSTANDING • Self-concept: how we view and evaluate ourselves • In middle childhood shifts from external to internal and physical to psychological • Becomes more multi-dimensional • Social comparisons increase (viewing ourselves in relation to the status, abilities or achievements of others) • Self esteem: Overall sense of worth and wellbeing • Is generally a decline from early to middle childhood upon school entry, then picks up and generally quite high across middle childhood • Becomes more differentiated (academic, social, athletic, appearance → global self esteem) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA GENDER IDENTITY • Intersex individuals are not unambiguously male or femalegenetically, physically or hormonally • Transgender: people who don’t retain gender identity assigned at birth • Some transgender individuals may identify as the opposite sex and may seek gender reassignment surgery, while others have a more fluid gender identity • Feelings often emerge in childhood, raising complex issues This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND Stage 4 Stage 3 Industry vs. inferiority Stage 2 Initiative vs. Guilt Stage 1 Autonomy vs. shame & doubt Trust vs. mistrust Is my world predictable and supportive? Can I do things myself or must I rely on others? Am I good or am I bad? Am I competent or am I worthless? 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-6 years 6 yrs -puberty ERIKSON’S STAGES DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD • Crisis of middle childhood is Industry vs Inferiority • Industry- effort, mastery, competence and achievement; skill-building; ability to do good work • Inferiority- children lack competence, self-belief, low self esteem; criticism can contribute to inferiority PEER RELATIONSHIPS – MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Peer interactions  Provide alternative ways of interacting  Teach emotional control and communication on equal footing  Develop relationship skills Influenced by parental choices  Overlap between parent and child social networks This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY -SA -NC FRIENDSHIP IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Mutual, dyadic relationship  Voluntary  Reciprocal  Distinctive from general peer relationships Provide social scaffolding for normative transitions Can compensate for lack of general peer popularity FUNCTIONS OF FRIENDSHIP Fosters social competence Gives ego support Provides emotional security Is a source of intimacy and affection Provides guidance and assistance Provides companionship and stimulation Is a basis for reliable alliance (Asher & Parker, 1989) SOCIOGRAM EXAMPLE: A PRIMARY SCHOOL CLASS BASED ON FRIENDSHIP CHOICES PEER STATUS BULLYING • Pattern of maltreatment of peers, including aggression, repetition and power imbalance • bullying increases in middle childhood, peaking in adolescence •International estimates suggest 15- 30% of children bullied in middle childhood •Growing up in Australia study found 1 in 3 10-11 year olds reported experiencing bullying in the last year • Being ‘different’ is often a risk factor • e.g. disability, weight, minority culture, low SES, single parent, or new to the school

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Impacts of Abuse, Neglect & Trauma on Child Development WHAT IS CHILD ABUSE? ▪Child abuse can be defined as: 'any act, or failure to act, by a parent, caregiver, or other person of authority that has the potential to result in emotional or physical harm to a child’ (Parkerville, 2018, p. 2). ▪ Physical abuse can be defined as the intentional use of physical force against a child, resulting in cuts, bruises welts, burns, fractures, sprains, internal injuries, unconsciousness, or in extreme incidents, death ▪ Emotional abuse and/or psychological abuse can be a single incident or a compounding pattern of incidents where a parent or caregiver fails to provide an emotionally supportive environment (Norman et al., 2012). Emotional and psychological abuse includes: • Acts of rejection such as ignoring the child or withholding affection • Isolating the child from social interaction • Terrorising or threatening the child to induce fear • Corrupting the child by encouraging antisocial or deviant behavioural patterns • Non-physical forms of hostile treatment, such as verbally abusing, ridiculing, belittling or discriminating against the child • Neglecting the child’s medical, mental and educational needs • Involving the child in or exposing them to domestic violence (Briggs, 2012; Norman et al, 2012). ▪ Child sexual abuse: is defined as involving a child in any form of sexual activity beyond his/her understanding or developmental capabilities or any sexual act that violates the laws or community standards. ▪ Child sexual abuse is motivated by a perpetrator seeking to satisfy his/her own needs and commonly involves unequal power and grooming strategies (Briggs, 2012; Martin & Silverstone, 2013). ▪ Child sexual abuse has been described as the most concealed, ‘under-reported, least acted upon and the least punished crime despite it causing horrendous damage to victims’ lives’ (Briggs, 2012, p. 211). • Neglect is a failure to provide conditions that are necessary for the healthy development and wellbeing of the child, including providing an environment that nurtures and supports their health, learning and development and safe living conditions (Norman et al, 2012; Briggs 2012). According to Briggs (2012), there are four categories which define neglect. These are: • Physical Neglect: failure to provide the basic physical needs for a child such as a safe home environment, food, medical attention, clean and suitable clothing and facilities to be hygienic. Failure to protect children and young people from harmful substances, people or situations; • Emotional Neglect: failure to provide a warm, nurturing, loving environment or relationship with the child. Lack of interaction, attention, support and encouragement towards the child and inappropriate exposure to harmful conditions, such as exposure to violence, drugs, sex or hostility. Emotional neglect can intersect with emotional abuse; • Educational neglect: failure to provide the opportunity for an appropriate education which may include not enrolling the child in school, interfering with or keeping them home from school and not utilising educational support services such as services for special needs and; • Environmental neglect: failure to provide safe environment, which may include an environment surrounded by hazards, abandonment, eviction from the family home and inadequate supervision ▪ Approximately 2.5 million Australian adults are estimated to have experienced abuse during their childhood ▪ Data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare suggests the most commonly substantiated type of abuse is emotional abuse ▪ However, under-reporting or a lack of substantiation mean reported figures are likely to significantly under-estimate all cases Adapted from: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2018-19, Children who were the subject of substantiations, by sex and primary type of abuse or neglect, 2018-19, Australia. ▪ When people talk about trauma, they may be talking about an event, a prolonged experience, or the response and impact of that experience. ▪ Briere and Scott (2014) state that ‘an event is traumatic if it is extremely upsetting, at least temporarily overwhelms the individual’s internal resources, and produces lasting psychological symptoms’ (pg. 10). ▪ Can be single incident OR complex trauma ▪ Complex trauma often interpersonal & involves betrayal; prolonged; follows mistreatment by trusted adults & disrupts relationships; and occurs at developmentally vulnerable stages of life (Courtois & Ford, 2009) • Frequency affects impact. Trauma is cumulative. • Severity affects impact. The severity of the experience of trauma affects its ongoing impact. A person may be seriously frightened but end up with superficial injuries. Severity comparisons are not generally helpful between sufferers, and this index refers more to the person’s subjective experience of severity - for example, a car crash is traumatic but the ongoing health consequences vary from loss of life to transient shock. • Age affects impact: Adults have the benefit of their size, their memories, their developed skills and resources to bring to situations of danger, disaster and loss. They can recall times of safety and perhaps have the means to control or limit the traumatic impact of an event. Children have none of these assets and are still developing. CHILD ABUSE, ACES AND TRAUMA ▪ Trauma creates physiological responses in people that are designed to help us survive (e.g. a car accident) ▪ Children differ from adults in that their minds and bodies are still developing in response to their physical, social and emotional contexts ▪ Living in a traumatic or chronically stressful environment will affect a person’s physiological and neurological development over time ▪ Trauma-based behaviour often makes sense in the context in which it first emerged however it can become counter-productive later in life. ▪ Childhood/Developmental trauma refers to the impact of chronic traumatic experiences (complex trauma) that occur during childhood. ▪ Complex/developmental trauma interferes with all phases of development and the meeting of developmental milestones (van der Kolk). ▪ In particular neurobiological development and the capacity to integrate sensory, emotional and cognitive information into a cohesive whole can be greatly impacted. ▪ Chronic trauma also interferes with the development of normal attachment and all interpersonal relationships for the child. IMPACTS OF ABUSE, NEGLECT & TRAUMA ON DEVELOPMENT ▪ Trauma often causes developmental regression or derailment. ▪ This includes: ▪ Attachment to their carer(s) ▪ Physical and academic development (easier to spot) ▪ Social and emotional development (harder to identify) ▪ Children who experience abuse and trauma are very likely to have disrupted attachment ▪ This can impact the ‘blueprint’ or internal working model for future relationships ▪ Children who have disrupted attachment can display a lack of trust in caregivers and other adults, or on the other hand display indiscriminate affection with adults they do not know well in order to gain connection. ▪ Trauma often triggers our body’s stress response causing us to fight, flee or freeze. ▪ These are adaptive changes that increase the odds of survival. However, when in a state of prolonged fear/stress the brain can keep the body in fight/flight/freeze or lower the threshold necessary to trigger survival mode ▪ In turn, children my be hyper-alert, seemingly over-react to ‘normal’ events, and this impedes children’s cognitive and language development as they are ‘stuck in survival mode’, it also impedes the capacity to take in new information and to rest and integrate experiences into a meaningful whole. ▪ Children can be more likely to freeze (or disassociate) as they may be unable to fight or flee (Blue Knot, 2022) ▪ The brain is the body’s fastest growing organ from 0-6; however trauma can disrupt this rapid development as the body attends to its survival Image source: Bruce D Perry/The Child Trauma Academy Image source: CNN Safety, stability and connecting as key principles which underpin healing and thriving (Parkerville, 2022): Safety – feeling safe underpins a child’s journey of recovery and is therefore the most important element to establish for a child who has experienced child abuse. Stability – children and young people need care, protection, and environments that are stable and predictable, as opposed to chaotic and changing. Connecting – relationships are key to helping a child recover from abuse and helping them to feel brave enough to reach out to others and accept connections themselves. Healing – actively overcoming trauma symptoms. This is something we will cover in the ‘Responding to Childhood Trauma’ course. Thriving - to recover fully from their abuse experiences and achieve their optimum potential

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE • Puberty • Brain Development • Adolescent Health This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY PHYSICAL CHANGES • Puberty drastically changes the adolescent’s anatomy, physiology and outward appearance • Bodies change to enable sexual reproduction • Growth spurt, body shape changes, hair growth, breast development and menstruation in females PHYSICAL CHANGES • Significant hormonal changes lead to bodily changes of puberty • Primary sex characteristics: directly related to reproduction • Secondary sex characteristics: other bodily changes arising from hormonal increases during puberty • Individual variation in onset of physical changes of puberty PHYSICAL CHANGES • Individual variation in onset of physical changes of puberty • Fairly consistent decline in age of first menstruation in past two centuries • Earlier onset also linked to chemical exposure, stress, adequate or overabundant nutrition and obesity • Early maturation often risk-factor for females • Brain white matter continues to grow – i.e. Neurons becoming more myelinated (enhanced conductivity/connectivity) • Grey matter decreases – synaptic pruning or elimination of less active synapses • Most active in Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) • PFC important for “executive functions” – planning, organising, emotional regulation, response inhibition • May explain many “adolescent” behaviours • Peer influence (e.g. car crashes) BRAIN DEVELOPMENT From Ramos-Loyo et al (2013) HEALTH ISSUES IN ADOLESCENCE EATING DISORDERS • Changes in body can be associated with changes in our relationships with food • Dieting very common among teenage girls • Anorexia- restricted energy intake • Bulimia- bingeing and purging • Early identification and support key • Butterfly Foundation This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY HEALTH ISSUES IN ADOLESCENCE SUBSTANCE USE/ABUSE • In Australia (AIHW, 2016): • 39% of young people aged 15–24 engaged in risky drinking • 11% were daily smokers • 25% had used illicit drugs in the past year • Reasons for substance use among adolescents are varied DRUG USE BY AUSTRALIAN ADOLESCENTS Image source: Hoffnung et al. (2019, p. 545) SEXUAL EXPERIENCE IN AUSTRALIA Activity (years 10-12 students) Total % (N=4656) Deep kissing 74.4% Touching partners genitals 65.0% Been touched on genitals 65.6% Giving oral sex 52.1% Receiving oral sex 51.4% Anal sex 12.6% Vaginal sex 44.4% Australian Study of Health and Relationships (2014); National Survey of Australian Secondary Students and Sexual Health (2013) • Median age at first intercourse is 17 years • Activity increases with year level, e.g. intercourse: Year 10 (33%), Year 11 (44%), Year 12 (53%) • Partners in previous year (of those sexually active): None (4%), 1 (62%), 2 (16%), 3+ (19%) • Ever had unwanted sex: 28% (more females than males; mostly because too drunk or partner wanted to) SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS • When you had sex in the last year, how often were condoms used (N=2882)? • 38.4% always; 23.8% often, 10.5% sometimes, 14.5% occasionally, 12.8% never • STIs Enter body via mouth and sex organs  Include: Syphilis, gonorrhoea, genital lice, scabies, chlamydia, herpes, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis, HIV/AIDS • May result in infertility, life-threatening complications • Abstinence the only complete prevention, but practicing ‘safer sex’ may be more achievable Australian Study of Health and Relationships (2014); National Survey of Australian Secondary Students and Sexual Health (2013) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY AND PARENTHOOD Adolescent pregnancy  Australian rate – 11.4 per 1000  May keep the baby, have termination, or put up for adoption Reaction depends on  Self-esteem, feelings about school  Relationship with baby’s father  Relationship with and support from parents  Peers who are parents Image source: Berk (2018, p. 384) CONSEQUENCES AND RISKS • More prenatal and birth complications • Children of teen mothers more likely to be pre-term, low birth weight • Can be associated with negative developmental outcomes through adolescence • Teen mothers less likely to  Complete education, have stable well-paying job, enter secure marriage, achieve above average income Teen fathers less negatively affected  Have early contact with baby, but declines over time Source: AIHW (2018) Teenage Mothers in Australia Report. REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Fisher, C. M., Waling, A., Kerr, L., Bellamy, R., Ezer, P., Mikolajczak, G., Brown, G., Carman, M. & Lucke, J. (2019). 6th National Survey of Australian Secondary Students and Sexual Health 2018, (ARCSHS Monograph Series No. 113), Bundoora: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage White, V., & Williams, T. (2016). Australian secondary school students' use of tobacco, alcohol, and over-the-counter and illicit substances in 2014. Victoria, Australia: Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE • Formal Operations • Adolescent Thinking • Risky choices COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET • Move from concrete to formal operational thought • Ability to reason about complex tasks and those with multiple variables • Abstract thinking Hypothetico-deductive reasoning  Systematic, scientific approach  Tested by the pendulum problem Propositional reasoning  Making logical inferences (If, then thinking…)  Understand validity of logic INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING • Aspect of Piaget’s theory most heavily criticised • Achievement of formal operations overestimated  Only half achieve full operational thought, some never achieve it  Influenced by sociocultural context  Related to formal training in scientific and mathematical thinking INFORMATION-PROCESSING PERSPECTIVES ADOLESCENT THOUGHT • Meta-cognition improves in adolescence but coincides with specific type of ego-centrism • Difficulty distinguishing internal thoughts about self from thoughts of others leads to imaginary audience and feelings of selfconsciousness • Imaginary audience: belief others are acutely aware of and attentive to one’s appearance and behaviour • Personal fable can lead to anguish and high-risk behaviour • Personal fable: belief in our own uniqueness, often including a sense of invulnerability DECISION-MAKING Adolescents increasing autonomy sees greater need for decision-making:  Balance between potential risk or gain  Risk-aversive, risk-seeking behaviour  Perception more important than actuality  Biases due to retrievability of instances With age and experience decision-making ability increases  More options generated, see different perspectives, predict outcomes, evaluate information sources This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC RISKY CHOICES Adolescents make more risky choices Emotional response to choices is greater Burnett et al. (2010) “These findings support the hypothesis that risky behavior in adolescence is associated with an imbalance caused by different developmental trajectories of reward and regulatory brain circuitry” Van Leijenhorst et al. (2010) REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Burnett, S., Bault, N., Coricelli, G., & Blakemore, S. J. (2010). Adolescents' heightened risk-seeking in a probabilistic gambling task. Cognitive Development, 25(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.11.003 Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage Van Leijenhorst, L., Moor, B. G., de Macks, Z. A. O., Rombouts, S. A., Westenberg, P. M., & Crone, E. A. (2010). Adolescent risky decision-making: Neurocognitive development of reward and control regions. Neuroimage, 51(1), 345-355. EMOTIONS AND IDENTITY FORMATION DURING ADOLESCENCE EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT • Adolescence in the West, often a time of emotional volatility • Less often report feeling ‘very happy’ • Internal and external influences • Not universal (not biologically driven) SELF-CONCEPT • Self-conceptions more complex and abstract • Begin to think about real self in relation to possible selves • Ideal or feared self • Portrayal of the false self (who you think others want you to be) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND SELF-ESTEEM • Fluctuates- declines then rises through to emerging adulthood • Physical appearance and social acceptance most influential on global self-esteem • High self-esteem = realistic evaluation coupled with an attitude of acceptance and respect • Evaluations impact emotional experience, behaviour, and psychological adjustment • Low self-esteem in adolescence is associated with adverse outcomes later in life including depression, unemployment & criminality • Authoritative parenting enhances self-esteem, while authoritarian parenting reduces it This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY ADOLESCENCE AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT Adolescence can be divided into three stages: 1. Early adolescence (11-13 years) - Am I normal? 2. Middle adolescence (14-16 years) - Who am I? 3. Late adolescence (17-18 years) - Where am I going? Identity issues central, with questions of identity arising from cognitive and hormonal changes; awakening sexual interest; normative societal expectations; vocational expectations Michael Carr-Gregg (2002; 2005) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC ERIKSON: IDENTITY FORMATION • For Erikson, establishing an identity is the major task of adolescence • Stage 5: identity vs. role confusion • Identity achieved through exploration of personal values, beliefs & goals and experimentation with various domains • Successful identity formation necessary for future development of friendships and intimate relationships • Individuals must achieve balance – identity an ongoing life project MORAL DEVELOPMENT Moral reasoning – the thought processes involved in justifying a decision that involves right and wrong Moral development – Age-related changes in moral reasoning  Emotional component: Feelings cause us to empathise with another’s distress or to feel guilty because of our actions  Cognitive component: Developing social understanding enables increasingly profound judgements about actions one believes to be right or wrong  Behavioural component: Experiencing morally relevant thoughts and feelings increases the likelihood that people will act accordingly MORAL DEVELOPMENT: KOHLBERG Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoid disapproval Morality of self-interest: to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards Postconventional level Conventional level Preconventional level •1 st stage: Punishment orientation – Right or wrong determined by what is punished •2 nd stage: Naïve reward orientation – Right or wrong determined by what is rewarded •1 st stage: Good boy/good girl orientation – Right or wrong determined by close others’ approval or disapproval •2 nd stage: Authority orientation – Right or wrong determined by society’s rules & laws, which should be obeyed rigidly •1 st stage: Social contract orientation – Right or wrong determined by society’s rules, which are fallible rather than absolute •2 nd stage: Individual principles & conscience orientation – Right or wrong determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasise equity and justice CULTURE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT • Modern perspectives see moral development and culture as interconnected • Worldview provides basis for:  Moral reasoning – explaining right or wrong  Moral evaluations – outcome of moral reasoning  Moral behaviours – actions that reinforce worldview • Some patterns appear universal (e.g. young children more ego-centric than older children or adults); while other differ (e.g. individual vs collectivist cultures) • Considers three primary types of ethics 1. Ethic of autonomy 2. Ethic of community 3. Ethic of divinity This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE CHANGING FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS • Adolescent parent-child relationships  Quality depends on foundation established in childhood  Continue to be important source of social support, major influence on key decisions • Adolescents increase selfregulation; seek control, choice, and autonomy • Conflicts with parents increase • Balance between autonomy and parental monitoring PARENT-CHILD CONFLICT • Conflict may arise from  Discrepancies between expectations of responsibilities and freedoms  Views on appropriate and inappropriate behaviour  Everyday issues • Conflict more common in early adolescence than later • Less than 10% of families experience significant intergenerational conflict • Refugee adolescents show increased parental conflict associated with longer time in Australia ADOLESCENT PEER GROUPS • Adolescents tend to be happiest when with friends and peer support strongly associated with psychological well-being • Adolescent social groups include cliques and crowds Clique  A group of 3-9 members  Characterised by close relationships  Provide security, group norms Crowd  A collection of cliques, about 20 members  Provide group identity (some individuals try different identities by belonging to different crowds) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA PEER STATUS • Popular adolescents –More involved with peers –Better social skills –May also display antisocial behaviour • Controversial adolescents –Aggressive, but socially skilled • Neglected and rejected adolescents –Lack social skills, engage less with peers and with opposite sex ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS • Frequency of romantic relationships increases across adolescence • Range from one-night stands to short-term relationships, casual dating, and long-term relationships • Young people fall passionately in love right around world • Relationships and sexuality are viewed differently due to culture • Adolescence when most people become fully aware of their sexual orientation • ‘Coming out’ may occur later • 6% of Australian adolescents reported being attracted to members of the same sex and 11% were attracted to people of both sexes PROBLEMS: DELINQUENCY Crime and delinquency  Crime rates peak about 18 then decline  Age–crime relationship  Increased peer importance coupled with independence from parents  Two types of delinquency  Life course – persistent delinquents  Adolescence-limited delinquents RESILIENCE Protective factors are: High intelligence Physical attractiveness Parenting with warmth and control Caring adult mentors

EMERGING ADULTHOOD • What is ‘emerging adulthood’ • What led to the emergence of this stage? • Is it universal? This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND DO YOU FEEL YOU HAVE REACHED ADULTHOOD? Emerging adults often feel adult in some ways but not others. Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow (2019, p. 402) EMERGING ADULTHOOD • There are five distinctive characteristics of emerging adulthood  Age of identity explorations – explore various possibilities of work and love  Age of instability – exploration leads to instability  Self-focused age – learning to be more selfsufficient before committing  Age of feeling in-between – feeling of being in transition  Age of possibilities – potential for dramatic changes This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC EMERGING ADULTHOOD • Globalisation and tertiary education participation increasing spread of emerging adulthood • Observed in developed countries around the world but variance between countries • Stronger sense of family obligation in Asian cultures • Prolonged period of emerging adulthood in Europe • In rural areas within developed countries, transition to adulthood often still occurs more sharply and quickly  Rural young people have fewer opportunities for schooling and exploring This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND ENTERING ADULTHOOD • What makes an adult?  Accepting responsibility for oneself  Making independent decisions  Becoming financially independent • Cultural variations Image source: Daily Mail PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING AND EARLY ADULTHOOD • Peak physical performance • Health behaviours • First signs of ageing • Overweight and Obesity This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD The peak of physical functioning  Emerging adulthood is a period of peak physical functioning  VO2 peaks in early 20s  Reaction, grip strength and bone density are at its peak  Least susceptibility to physical illness  However, lifestyle may undermine health (e.g. poor nutrition, high stress, substance use and lack of sleep) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA EMERGING ADULTHOOD & HEALTH BEHAVIOUR • Decreased social control at this time can exacerbate risks • Injuries and fatalities  Automobile accidents major threat to life and health of emerging adults  Car fatalities highest between ages 16 - 24  Inexperience  Risky driving behaviour – speed, not enough distance, traffic violations, risky lane changes, driving under the influence Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow (2019, p. 409) EMERGING ADULTHOOD & HEALTH BEHAVIOUR Substance abuse  Substance abuse peaks from 18–24  Peak and decline possibly explained by unstructured socialising  University-age students have more unstructured time causing peak  Role transition causes decline in substance abuse Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow (2019, p. 411) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD • Generally physical functioning remains high • Strong immune system, less vulnerable to health impacts of risky behaviour • Beginning signs of ageing  Greying hair – begins in young adulthood (about 30 years of age)  Thinning hair  Skin becomes looser, wrinkles appear  Cholesterol and fat begin to accumulate PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD • Many people in developed countries have a problem with overweight or obesity due to food abundance and preference for foods high in fat and sugar • Weight gain caused by multiple factors:  Change in basal metabolic rate  Genetics  Diet • Adult with BMI over 25 is overweight, over 30 is obese PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD • Global relationship between affluence and obesity • Increases risk of illness and disease in middle adulthood REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING & EARLY ADULTHOOD • Higher education • Work • Post-formal thinking This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: EDUCATION • Tertiary education rates have increased dramatically in last century • Inequalities in access to further education contributes to pathways to disadvantage • Benefits include:  Higher earnings and occupational status  Verbal and quantitative skills  Oral and written communication  Distinct identity  Social confidence  Increased self-concept and psychological well-being Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow (2019, p. 417) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: EDUCATION Economic benefits of university study in the weekly earnings of Australians Image source: Arnett, Chapin & Brownlow (2019, p. 419) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT- WORK • Job opportunities and pathways more limited for those without tertiary education, unemployment 3x higher Without tertiary education key skills for employment are:  Reading at ninth-grade level or higher  Doing math at a ninth-grade level or higher  Solving semi-structured problems  Communicating orally and in writing  Using a computer for word processing and other tasks  Collaborating in diverse groups COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD- POST FORMAL THINKING •Pragmatism  Pragmatism – adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real-life situations  Aware of the impact of social factors in any given situation • Dialectical thought • Growing awareness that problems may have no clear solution and two opposing strategies or points of view may each have merit • Reflective judgment  Reflective judgment – capacity to evaluate the accuracy and coherence of evidence and arguments  Move from dualistic thinking to multiple thinking to relativism to commitment This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • Expertise – extensive knowledge and skill in a specific field  Often takes >10 years study or practice  Frontal lobe maturity promotes expertise • Creativity – putting new ideas together in creative ways  With expertise, able to go from problem solving to problem finding  Young adulthood exceptionally creative period

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING & EARLY ADULTHOOD • Self-esteem & self-identity • Changing relationships • Love, marriage, parenthood • Work This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA SELF ESTEEM IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD • Self-esteem generally improves  Physical changes settled  Conflict with parents decreases, family relationships improve  Peer evaluations less central after leaving school  Greater degree of control over one’s life SELF IDENTITY IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD • Identity development  Identity formation historically thought to occur in adolescence  Emerging adulthood is time period of importance • Marcia classified adolescents into one of four identity statuses  Diffusion  Moratorium  Foreclosure  Achievement  Takes longer to reach identity achievement than first expected BICULTURAL IDENTITY IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD GENDER IDENTITY IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD • Gender development  Beliefs about roles of women (work, marriage, domestic responsibilities, parenthood)  Gender stereotypes still exist especially with regard to work Women’s work more likely to be rated less favourable than men’s  Gender inequality persists SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD • Sociocultural contexts change • Family relationships  In most Western majority cultures, young people move out of their parents’ home  Leads to increased quality of parental interaction occurs after leaving home  46% of Australian emerging adults will return to the nest at least once • Friendships important • Increased time in unstructured activities • Source of support, advice, companionship – boosts self-esteem, buffers stress • There is a decline in leisure activities as people age Image: shutterstock Falling in love can be viewed as a developmental process... Developmental tasks in preparation for, & initiation into, couple relationships Developmental prerequisites for adult couple relationships Emotional independence from parents Identity crisis resolved Understanding of reproduction & safe sex Developmental tasks of adult couple relationships Mutual trust & understanding developed through communication and sharing of experience A shared identity as a couple developed, building on secure individual identity growth Skills learned for resolving conflict and dealing with life’s problems Adapted from Peterson (2010), Looking forward through the lifespan. LOVE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD • Love and sexuality  Seek similarities in a partner  Consensual validation  Cohabitation common in the West  Centre of emotional life shifts • Moving into early adulthood, challenge is to bring together newly formed identity with another person in a committed adult relationship • Erikson’s 6th stage of ‘intimacy vs isolation’ (ages 19-40) Men’s Rankings Women’s Rankings 1. Mutual attraction – love 1. Mutual attraction – love 2. Dependable character 2. Dependable character 3. Emotional stability and maturity 3. Emotional stability and maturity 4. Pleasing disposition 4. Pleasing disposition 5. Good health 5. Education and intelligence 6. Education and intelligence 6. Sociability 7. Sociability 7. Good health 8. Desire for home and children 8. Desire for home and children 9. Refinement, neatness 9. Ambition and industriousness 10. Good looks 10. Refinement, neatness WHAT DO WE LOOK FOR IN A LONG-TERM PARTNER? Sprecher & Regan (2002) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • As we age, we often move into more enduring relationships • Robert Sternberg  Robert Sternberg proposed different types of love based on three specific qualities  Passion – physical attraction and sexual desire  Intimacy – closeness and emotional attachment  Commitment – pledge to love over the long run  Combine to form seven types of love SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • Changes in love over the course of the relationship • In Sternberg’s theory, passion peaks early and then fades, whereas intimacy and commitment rise and then remain steady. MARRIAGE IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • Marriage serves several functions:  Uniting people to serve complementary gender roles  Reduces sexual competition  Necessary for the species • Notions of romanticised love and marriage relatively recent • Variation between cultures in choice of marriage partners, economics and number of marriage partners This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA MARRIAGE IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • Western marital roles  Western view of marriage strongly based on intimacy and sexual relationships • Factors that predict marital satisfaction:  Realistic expectations  Shared interests  Shared roles and responsibilities  Shared power, compromise • Necessary to continually adjust DIVORCE IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • Partly consequence of high expectations, less pragmatic • Expressive divorce: common in West where people believe marriage should provide emotional needs of love and intimacy • Globally, rising individualism associated with higher divorce rates  It is rare in most parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, North Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and southern Europe • Difficult adjustment, often 1-2 years to recover SINGLEDOM IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • About 1 in 10 not married or in long-term relationship entering their 40s • Can be associated with negative outcomes (poorer mental and physical health, substance use) • Enjoy freedom, miss companionship • BUT those always single have more favourable outcomes than those who married but later became separated, divorced or widowed • Benefits of being HAPPILY married relative to single, but unhappily married worse than single, separated or divorced BECOMING A PARENT • In most countries, about 90% of young adults have at least one child (76% in Aus) •Traditional countries  Becoming a parent is extremely important  Fertility is goal of a woman and men enjoy greater status  Gender roles are well defined and parenting fits the roles • Developed countries  Parenting is a choice  Western countries report sexual activity is less about children and more for intimacy  Parents more likely to be on their own although there are ethnic group differences  Gender roles less defined but women more likely to have household and childcare duties WORK IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • Developing occupational goals can occur through 5 stages (Super)  Crystallisation (14-18) –begin to seek information and consider how talents & interests align with job possibilities  Specification (18-21) – choices become more focused, begin training  Implantation (21-24) – completing education that began in previous stage  Stabilisation (25-35) – establish career  Consolidation (35+) – gain expertise and experience WORK IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD CAREER STAGES Figure 12.9 Greenhaus (1988) First 3 stages typically take place in early adulthood

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD • Changes in Sensory Abilities • Changes in Reproductive Systems • Health Problems • Influences on Midlife Health and Healthy Ageing PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Middle adulthood ages 40-60 years  Life expectancy determines ‘middle age’  Dramatic advances in past century  Related to medical advances, changes in lifestyle and public health policy Greater focus on maintaining health in middle-age  Body monitoring AIHW retrieved from: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/life-expectancy-death/deaths-in-australia/contents/life-expectancy Sources: ABS 2014a; ABS 2014b; ABS 2015; ABS 2016; ABS 2017; ABS 2018a; (Table S6.1). SENSORY CHANGES • Changes in sensory abilities • Often gradual • High individual variation • Vision generally declines most  Lens becomes less flexible  Rods and cones diminish in numbers • Hearing declines for some, especially for high pitched sounds  Hairs in inner ear thin out  Environment also plays a role  Important for social functioning CHANGES IN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS- WOMEN • Menopause usually occurs late 40s – early 50s • Timing influenced by genetics • Variety of symptoms  Include hot flushes, tiredness, headaches, dizziness, heart palpitations, vaginal changes • Hormone Replacement Therapy– pros and cons • Post menopause  Hormone levels stabilise and menopausal signs subside This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND REPRODUCTIVE CHANGES – MEN • Male fertility also impacted through gradual decline in number and quality of sperm • Male reproductive change is longer and slower than for females • Men still able to father children in 50s and 60s and beyond… • E.g. Robert DeNiro, Clint Eastwood, Michael Douglas, Barnaby Joyce • Evolutionary perspectives This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA CHANGES IN SEXUALITY • Sexuality valued for intimacy in romantic relationships • Frequency varies widely • Some physical changes can impact sexual relationships and activity –Women – vaginal dryness; less easily aroused –Men – impotence; changes in orgasm; longer refractory period • Positives: –More time and energy for each other –Less fear of pregnancy –Better communication HEALTH AND DISEASE • Many people maintain health during midlife but becomes more challenging • Health promotion behaviours important (sleep, exercise, diet, minimising stress) • Predicts later health and longevity • Rise in some health risks: • sleep problems • osteoporosis • cardiovascular problems • cancer This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC BREAST CANCER • Breast cancer the most commonly diagnosed cancer in Australian women • New cases doubled in last 20 years, mortality rate declined (5 year survival >90%) • Early detection predicts higher survival rate • Breast self-examinations • Psychosocial aspects – depression, stress, relationships, work life • Re-conceptualising as a survivor rather than patient can be helpful PROSTATE CANCER • Prostate cancer the most common cancer in Australian men • Number of deaths similar to women with breast cancer • Causes unknown • Increased risk with family history, age • Young men less likely to be diagnosed with prostate cancer, but more likely to die from it • Slow to grow • Being able to talk about it (social support) prevents poor mental health outcomes. INFLUENCES ON HEALTH AND LATER DEVELOPMENT • Vaillant identified characteristics of midlife (age 50) that predicted health outcomes 25 to 30 years later  Smoking habits, being overweight and alcohol abuse strongly predicted negative health outcomes (sad–sick or death)  Years of education, marriage stability, and internal dispositions such as thankful, forgiving, empathy and sociability predicted positive health outcomes (happy–well) • US MIDUS study of mid-life adults- Positive affect, optimism, social support • Employment status • Education protective for health This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD • Intelligence • Speed of processing • Expertise • Work • Education Image: shutterstock FLUID AND CRYSTALLISED INTELLIGENCE • Changes in intelligence during middle adulthood depend on the TYPE of intelligence being considered • Fluid intelligence: type of intelligence that involves information processing abilities such as short-term memory, the ability to discern relationships between visual stimuli and the speed of synthesising new information • Crystallised intelligence: accumulation of a person’s culturally based knowledge, language and understanding of social conventions COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: INFORMATION PROCESSING IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD • Perceptual speed declines • Decline in ability to focus attention • Decline in ability for divided attention • Not a large decline in memory tasks • Accumulation of knowledge and expertise EXPERTISE • Expertise peaks: A form of crystallised intelligence • Specialised experience and knowledge in specific domain • Experience and expertise compensate for declining abilities • Compensatory mechanisms are domain-specific • Most intellectual functions are maintained through middle age and often beyond CAREER DEVELOPMENT • For many, job satisfaction peaks: • More expertise and authority, pleasure in doing job well • Time of establishment and consolidation  Generativity – mentoring, leadership  Reappraising, reaffirming or modifying goals • For others a time of change: • Women may re-enter the workforce after children, may change employers due to the ‘glass ceiling’ • Men and women may leave the workforce voluntarily (early retirement) or involuntarily • Involuntary job loss challenging due to difficulty re-entering the job market and often loss of income and status in new role- associated with declines in physical and mental health This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND GLOBALISATION AND WORK  Has increased some work instability  Shift away from organisational careers  Same job and same field for years  Shift towards protean career  Changeable and less linear – may not just change job but also field!  Middle adulthood more difficult to obtain employment  Education may also create separation This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC RETURNING TO EDUCATION • Life changes or transitions often impetus for return (Aslanian & Brisckell, 1980) • Career, family, health, religion, citizenship, art, leisure • Women greater variations in reasons for adult learning than men • Older university students tend to be well educated, high incomes, high self -efficacy, self -directed and goal - oriented This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY -SA -NC WORK/LIFE CONCERNS Mid-career individuals face a range of potential concerns including plateauing, role conflict, “workaholism”, and burnout Burnout highest in ‘helping professions’ Often high interpersonal stress of the work Annual leave provisions associated with cultural differences This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND REFERENCES Arnett, J. J., Chapin, L., & Brownlow, C. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (Australian and New Zealand Edition). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson. Berk, L. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th edn.). Boston, US: Pearson. Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R.J., Seifert, K.L., Hine, A., Pause, C., Ward, L., Signal, T., Swabey, K., Yates, K., & Burton-Smith, R. (2019). Lifespan development (4th Australasian edn.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Sigelman, C.K., George, L., Cunial, K., & Rider, E.A. (2019). Life span human development. South Melbourne, Victoria : Cengage SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD • Explore the ‘mid-life crisis’ • Changes in self-concept and selfacceptance • Marital satisfaction • Family roles and responsibilities • Leisure This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA THE MYTH OF THE ‘MIDLIFE CRISIS’ Midlife crisis  Jung credited with coining the term midlife crisis  Levinson and Jung believed it a time of feeling confusion and turmoil  Research has failed to find consistent evidence of a midlife crisis  Negative life events can occur triggering feelings of ‘crisis’ but not specific to middle adulthood SELF DEVELOPMENT • Self contentment is often highest during mid-life  Self-acceptance favourable  Identity favourable  Increased autonomy Collectivist cultures  May emphasise relations to others more than self-development  Value children’s success moreso than personal success  Greater closeness in relationships GENERATIVITY • Erikson’s theory – generativity versus stagnation • Generativity is the motivation to contribute to the well-being of future generations • Parenting, mentorship, volunteering • Personal legacy • Studies find increase in generativity from young to middle adulthood, however doesn’t decline with age. FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS • Midlife parents often have young adult or emerging adulthood children  Unmarried adult children at home tend to be welcomed in southern Europe and Japan  Adult children leaving the home is both sad and happy time in northern Europe, United States, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada • Parents still often provide financial support From Gilbert, 2006 EFFECTS OF NEST LEAVING ON PARENTS Criterion Average effects Potential moderators Marital quality Increase in marital quality for crosssectional, retrospective and most longitudinal studies Gender (more increase for women in most studies) Marital equity Few data, but increase in marital equity Gender (more equity for women) Marital instability Few data, but increase in marital instability Timing of the transition (more instability for shorter marriages) Relationship with children Few effects, but need to negotiate new relationship rules Geographical distance Physical well-being Few data, but no effect No Psychological well-being Somewhat inconsistent. Loneliness or sense of loss for some women. Increase in wellbeing or no effect for most parents. Few parents with empty-nest syndrome Gender (more reported difficulties for women). Number of concomitant stressful events (negative relationship). Frequency of contacts with children (positive relationship). Worries (negative relationship) From Bouchard, 2014 MARRIAGE  Marriage satisfaction follows a Ushaped pattern  Satisfaction high to start, declines, then climbs again  Most marriage partners have greater financial security, fewer stresses and more leisure time  Most divorce occurs in first 10 years of marriage  Effects of divorce at midlife complex and varied FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS  Relations with parents vary  Traditional cultures may live with parents even if married, relatively rare in Western countries  Helping ageing parents a new developmental task  Sometimes supporting ageing parents and other times being supported by them  Health of parent plays a role in relationship GRANDPARENT ROLES • Largest source of informal care in Australia and New Zealand • 30% of children with two working parents receive some form of care from grandparents • Styles of grandparent caregiving: • Avid, flexible, selective, or hesitant •Surrogate parenting roles for grandchildren • Feel more experienced and relaxed, have more time and energy • Derive enjoyment and meaning from sharing family history, sharing ‘fun’, sharing wisdom, and creating a lasting legacy from their own life and experiences • Challenges in roles, health, feeling unprepared, being unsure of This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA their rights, and managing behaviour of grandchildren LEISURELY PURSUITS Time spent in middle adulthood includes:  Community involvement  Watching television  Exercise and sports  Going out to dinner  Dinner with friends  Other media  Socialising

Developmental Psychology: Ageing 1 Professor Hannah Keage Hannah.Keage@unisa.edu.au www.cain.science Structure Physical development Cognitive development Healthy ageing Physical development Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Our ageing world Rising proportions of older adults in developed countries Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Physical changes: senses Vision ▪ Reduced visual acuity ▪ Cataracts (clouding of the lens) – Most common visual impairment ▪ Increased chance of macular degeneration (degeneration of retina) ▪ Increased chance of glaucoma (problem with optic nerve) Hearing ▪ Reduced acuity for high-pitched sounds ▪ May develop tinnitus (ringing in ears) ▪ Can lead to social isolation Taste and smell ▪ Decline in taste and smell can make food less enjoyable ▪ Dangerous smells not detected Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Physical changes: sleep Changes in sleep patterns – Quality of sleep declines with age ▪ Sleep less deeply ▪ Time in light sleep increases – Sleep apnoea common sleep problem ▪ Can be treated with CPAP device – Psychological issues can also impair sleep ▪ Depression, anxiety, medical conditions and medications https://doi.org/10.1016/S1568-1637(02)00014-4 Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Health in late adulthood Common chronic health problems – Common health issues include arthritis, osteoporosis and hypertension – Arthritis – disease of the joints ▪ Cartilage that cushions joints wears out ▪ Women affected more than men – Osteoporosis ▪ Increased risk for broken bones – Hypertension ▪ High blood pressure Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Cognitive development Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Cognitive changes Salthouse et al., 2008, Intelligence Cognitive functions decline with age, but different patterns for different cognitive domains Vocabulary Reasoning Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Cognitive changes In fact, always challenge someone younger than you to a cross-word (as opposed to snap) Salthouse et al., 200, CDPS Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Healthy Ageing Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Healthy Ageing The World Health Organisation defines Healthy Ageing “as the process of developing and maintaining the functional ability that enables wellbeing in older age”. There are lots of things to consider in terms of healthy ageing, especially healthy cognitive ageing. We will cover: (1) Cognitive reserve (2) Dementia risk reduction Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Cognitive Reserve Cognitive reserve refers to individual differences in how individuals cope with brain changes, such as those related to dementia (in the below Figure AD=Alzheimer's disease). Barulli & Stern (2013) Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Dementia risk reduction Matthews et al., 2013, Lancet Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Dementia risk reduction Why has late-life dementia prevalence decreased? Risk-factors (accumulated over the lifespan) are modifiable. Around 40% of dementia cases worldwide appear preventable. Individual risk factors: Low education 7% Hearing loss 8% TBI 3% Hypertension 2% Alcohol 1% Obesity 1% Smoking 5% Depression 4% Social isolation 4% Physical inactivity 2% Air pollution 2% Diabetes 1% DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6 Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Dementia risk reduction Risk for late-life dementia develops over the whole lifespan. You can take action at any age to decrease your risk for dementia. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6 Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Functional considerations • Activities of Daily Living (ADLs): • basic self-care tasks • bathing, dressing, eating • Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs): • conducting business of daily life • require some cognitive competence • shopping, food preparation, housekeeping, paying bills Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Wrap-up • The worldwide population is ageing. • Cognitive performance does decrease in late-life, but there are different patterns for different cognitive domains. • Dementia is not inevitable in late-life.

Developmental Psychology: Ageing 2 Professor Hannah Keage Hannah.Keage@unisa.edu.au www.cain.science Structure MCI Dementia Delirium Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Age-related Neurocognitive Disorders Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Age-related cognitive trajectories Normal ageing Preclinical impairment Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) Dementia Cognitive performance mild moderate severe Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Neurocognitive disorders (DSM5-TR) • Delirium • Major neurocognitive disorder/ dementia. • Mild neurocognitive disorder/ Mild Cognitive Impairment. Different dementias/MCIs display different patterns of cognitive impairments. Late-onset dementias (>65y) associated with general cognitive impairments. Sachdev et al. (2014). Nature Reviews Neurology, 10, 634-642. MCI is the stage between normal cognitive function and dementia, however, not all people with MCI will progress to dementia People with MCI live relatively unaffected and can still perform activities of daily living Dementia is a syndrome characterised by deterioration in memory, thinking, behaviour and the ability to perform daily activities Dementia is a progressive disorder and has common characteristics dependent on the stage of dementia Unlike dementia and MCI, delirium is acute and fluctuating, typically lasting hours to days Neurocognitive disorders (DSM5-TR) Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is the stage between normal cognitive function and dementia (Mayo Clinic, 2020) • Presence of MCI increases dementia risk • MCI should be considered on a continuum • Prevalence ~15-20% of >65 years Mild Cognitive Impairment Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Mild Cognitive Impairment Noticed by self, close family and friends Classified by cognitive domains affected, e.g. – Amnestic MCI – Non-amnestic MCI – Note, amnestic = (some) memory loss Generally will not interfere with day to day life – Can continue with activities of daily living (ADLs) Dementia Dementia is a syndrome that is chronic and progressive, where there is deterioration in memory, thinking, behaviour and the ability to perform everyday activities (World Health Organisation, 2020) Estimated that 50 million people worldwide are living with dementia <9% dementia diagnoses are <65 years; more common in late life Estimated that 459,000 Australians are living with dementia (Dementia Australia, 2020) • Increase to 590,000 by 2028 and 1,076,000 by 2058 Common forms of dementia: • Alzheimer’s disease • Vascular dementia • Lewy body disease associated dementia • Frontotemporal dementia Screening for dementia and MCI Dementia Progression of dementia differs depending on the individual and the type of dementia (WHO, 2020; Dementia Australia, 2020) Mild • Gradual cognitive decline (e.g. forgetfulness, losing track of time) • Possible personality changes Moderate • Increased cognitive decline (e.g. forgets the pot on the stove, becoming lost at home) • Increased difficulty communicating • Need assistance with personal care or daily activities Severe • Need assistance for simple tasks such as dressing, walking or bathing • Unaware of time or place and difficulty recognising friends and family Delirium Acute and fluctuating disturbance in attention, arousal, and cognition as a consequence of a medical condition Common medical complication in older adults >65 years Serious health consequences including dementia, cognitive decline and death Prevalence around 20-30% in hospitalised older adults Inouye et al., (2014) Lancet; Davis et al., (2012) Brain; Fong et al., (2011) Nat Rev Neurol; Slooter et al., (2020) Intensive Care Med Delirium • Hypoactive delirium • Drowsiness, slow/absent speech, inactivity, psychomotor retardation • Least likely to be detected and is associated with worse health outcomes • Hyperactive delirium • Agitation, restlessness, hallucinations, combativeness, psychomotor agitation • Mixed delirium • Manifestation of characteristics of both hyperactive and hypoactive delirium Delirium v dementia Delirium • Rapid onset • Fluctuates throughout the day • Reversible • Can result from multiple sources i.e. infection, medication • Primary defects in attention and arousal Dementia • Progressive, slow onset • Does not fluctuate • Irreversible • Caused by neurodegenerative changes in the brain • Primary defect is short term memory Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Want to learn more? University of Tasmania: Wicking Dementia Research and Education Centre ▪Two free online courses, 4-7 weeks, up to 3 hours a week. https://www.utas.edu.au/wicking/understandin g-dementia https://www.utas.edu.au/wicking/preventingdementia Copyright © 2019 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9781488619465 / Arnett / Human Development: A Cultural Approach, 1e Wrap-up • MCI, dementia and delirium are all Neurocognitive Disorders in the DSM5. • There are modifiable risk factors for cognitive ageing and dementia. • There are behavioural and psychological changes associated with cognitive impairments, such as dementia, in late-life.

Social cognition Social cognition The perception and interpretation of the intentions, feelings, and behaviours of oneself and others Social cognition Emotion perception Identifying universally recognised emotions Social cognition Emotion perception Identifying universally recognised emotions Cognitive theory of mind Inferring beliefs, thoughts, or intentions Social cognition Emotion perception Identifying universally recognised emotions Cognitive theory of mind Inferring beliefs, thoughts, or intentions First-order Social cognition Emotion perception Identifying universally recognised emotions Cognitive theory of mind Inferring beliefs, thoughts, or intentions Second-order Social cognition Emotion perception Identifying universally recognised emotions Cognitive theory of mind Inferring beliefs, thoughts, or intentions Affective theory of mind Inferring affective states, emotions, or feelings Social cognition The perception and interpretation of the intentions, feelings, and behaviours of oneself and others Emotion perception Identifying universally recognised emotions Emotional empathy Sharing another's affective state Cognitive theory of mind Inferring beliefs, thoughts, or intentions Affective theory of mind Inferring affective states, emotions, or feelings Social cognition and healthy ageing Social cognition and healthy ageing Meta-analysis Emotion perception and ageing Happy Anger Surprise Sad Fear Disgust Results from Ruffman et al. 2008 Cognitive and affective ToM and ageing Results from Henry et al. 2013 Affective Cognitive Videos Static images Written stories Emotional empathy and ageing Videos Questionnaires When may these changes first occur? Do they continue to change with advancing age? Could declines in general cognitive functioning explain some of these changes? Could these differences be due to generational differences rather than a result of ageing processes? Unanswered questions Significance Social cognition is known to be vital for effective social functioning in later life which in turn is associated with: Risk of cognitive impairment Mortality rates Depressive symptoms Reduced social cognition may be a marker for future dementia diagnoses

Introduction to Dying, death and bereavement Developmental Psychology Photo by Sasha Freemind on Unsplash Danielle Pollock Memento Mori • Early 1900s • Mortality rates were high • Post-partum photographs • Medicalisation 1 2 3 2 Attitudes towards death • Death most likely to be in institutions • Often removed from everyday life • The dying may experience social death • Language about death often full of euphemisms • Death awareness movement • New meanings for death and dying • Cultural analysis of attitudes • Promoted the notion of the good death “Passed away” “Kicked the bucket” “Is in a better place” “Breathed her last” “Didn't make it” “Lost her battle” Where we die • 60-70% prefer to die at home. Hospitals and residential care/nursing homes are their least preferred • Few Australians aged over 65 die at home • Hospitalisations have increased significantly for older age groups. In 10 years to 2011-12 the hospitalisation rate for over 85s increased by 35% for women and 48% for men Broad, et al. (2013); Grattan Institute (2014); Higginson, et al. (2013) 4 5 6 3 How we die • Over last century the annual death rate has halved. People are less likely to die young, and more likely to die in old age of chronic and degenerative disease • Life expectancy has improved by around 30 years • In 1900, 25% died before 5y, largely of infectious disease. Less than 5% died after the age of 85y. By 2011 less than 1 per cent died before 5y and nearly 40% died after the age of 85, largely of chronic diseases • However, life expectancy at 85y has changed very little • Death is more predictable and takes longer • About 2/3 Australians die between 75 and 95y • But not all deaths are the same… ABS (2013); Grattan Institute (2014) Years of life with disability have increased faster than years of life without. Expected years of life for a 65yo by disability status End of Life Doula • Empower the dying • Provide non-medical support • Preserves the quality of well—being and selfworth. • Emphasises personal happiness and satisfaction. • Help alleviate physical and mental suffering of those who are dying • Support those surrounding the person dying- be a shoulder • Continuity of care Fukuzawa & Kondo (2017) Designed by Freepik 7 8 9 4 Stillbirth 2.6 million stillbirths each year (best estimate) (Horton & Samaraseekra, 2016). 1.3 million of those babies were alive at the start of labour (Horton & Samaraseekra, 2016). 98% of stillbirths occur in low and middle income countries (Horton & Samaraseekra, 2016). Aprox 2500 stillbirths in Australia per year (ABS, 2011). 6 stillbirths per day in Australia (ABS, 2011). Accepting one’s own death • Death becomes more salient with age • Earlier death experiences – Death of sibling in childhood – Death of friends or peers in adolescence – Death of cultural icons • Death acceptance – Neutral acceptance – Approach-avoidance acceptance – Escape-avoidance acceptance ‘Unfinished business’ • Some impacts on death acceptance • Dependent children • Adult children with intellectual disability • Dependent grandchildren • Disabled spouse • Career involvement • Ethnic and religious differences • No systematic research 10 11 12 5 Terror management theory • Terror management theory • Defensive reactions are key human motive • Adherence to own cultural world view increases as death becomes more salient • Death anxiety measures • Self-report scales e.g. Multidimensional Fear of Death Scale Death Anxiety • Death anxiety - the fear of and anxiety related to the anticipation, and awareness, of dying, death, and nonexistence • Includes emotional, cognitive, and motivational components that vary according to a person’s stage of development and sociocultural life experiences (Lehto & Stein, 2009) • Associated with brain activity that regulate fight-or-flight responses and record emotionally charged explicit and implicit memories (Panksepp, 2004) • Cognitive dimensions include an awareness of the salience of death and a variety of beliefs, attitudes, images, and thoughts concerning death, dying, and what happens after death (Lehto & Stein, 2009) Death Anxiety in Australia Based on Job (1984) 13 14 15 6 Death anxiety is Multidimensional • Fear of being destroyed • Fear of premature death • Fear of conscious death • Fear of the unknown • Fear of the dying process • Fear of the dead • Fear of the body after death • Fear for significant others Bereavement • Grief • Loss of primary relationships • Relationships of attachment • Relationships of community • Losses are not equivalent • Girls impacted more by death of siblings • Boys impacted more by death of parents Stages of grief • Stages of grief – Shock, disbelief, denial – Intense mourning – Period of restitution • Kübler-Ross’s five stages of coping with death also suggested to apply to grieving – However, not a predictable, linear process • Grief is culture-bound – Individual or collective experience? 16 17 18 7 Limitations to Kubler-Ross • Linear • Suggests a finality (closure) to grief • Lack of empirical evidence • Should be discussed as a historical theory. • What happens when someone doesn’t follow these stages? Continuing Bonds • Klass, Silverman and Nickman (1996) • Creating a new relationships with the deceased. • Adjust and redefine your relationships. • Not unhealthy! • Natural human attachments even in death. • You can’t just ‘get over it,’ or ‘move on.’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X55TJRj9HUk 19 20 21 8 Factors that influence the process …But, adjustment may vary depending on: 1. Cause of death – may be sudden or drawn out 2. Sex differences – men suffer more from pain, dependency and loss of occupation, women from the impact on others 3. Culture, ethnic & socioeconomic factors – class/affluence, finality of death 4. Historical events – peace & prosperity vs war, social upheaval & catastrophe 5. Personality/attitude – How did the person live? Coping mechanisms 6. Development & goals – Age differences, reasons to live, accomplishments 7. Social & physical surrounds – Social surrounds, supports and demands modify the experience and attitude of terminal patients Anticipatory grief • Death process can be prolonged and debilitating • Many experience intense sadness and grief during caregiving period • Anticipatory grief more likely when • Illness is over a long period • Dying person not cognitively intact • Resilience associated with pre-loss death acceptance Patterns of grief Figure 18.5 22 23 24 9 Support for bereaved • Support groups offer help to those who share similar experiences • e.g., suicide, SIDS, stillbirth and neonatal death, accidents, homicides • Types of groups • Self-help – bereaved peers • Set up by hospice or palliative care programs • Run by trained professionals • Individual counselling also effective Funeral and ritual practices • Functions of funerals • Organise for appropriate disposal of the body • Enable the experience of the implications of the death, enable the acting out of feelings • Assist social reintegration, show mourners they are not alone • Funeral rituals are diverse Mourning • Mourning the social experience of grief • Series of restricted behaviours and obligations • Few prescriptions as to how to interact with someone who is mourning • Different expectations for expressions of grief depending on whether it is an on- or off-time loss • Cultural differences • Jewish law and custom, Mexico 25 26 27 10 Recovery • Is recovery the appropriate term? • Maybe resilience, adaptation, reintegration, resolution • Arguments against the term • Does not allow for transformative outcomes • Leads to the view of bereavement as a disorganised state • Outcome depends on meaning of the loss and survivor’s coping resources What is a good death? • Subjective to the person Quality of death • Seven domains of experience of death • Physical • Psychological • Social • Spiritual or existential • Nature of health care • Life closure and death preparation • Circumstances of death Hales, Zimmermann and Rodin (2008) 28 29 30 11 Experience of death • Western attributes of a good death • Control, comfort, closure, values and beliefs honoured, trusting in care providers, recognising impending death, minimising burden and optimising relationships • Death awareness movement • Open rather than closed awareness • Critical issue seems to be ‘choice’ • Advanced care planning What do people choice • Most people prefer to die comfortably at home or in a home-like environment with minimal pain and suffering • Surrounded by friends and family and needed care services • A good death meets the individual physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs of the dying person • In a South Australian – 70% of population over 15y said they would prefer to die at home, 19% in hospital, and 10% in a hospice. Less than 1% wanted to die in a nursing home Higginson, et al. (2013); Foreman, et al. (2006) End-of-life decisions • Kuhse et al (1997) survey of Australian medical practitioners • Euthanasia 1.7% • Physician-assisted suicide .01% • Ending of life without patient’s explicit request 3.5% • Alleviation of pain and symptoms with opioids 30.9% • Decision not to treat 28.6% 31 32 33 12 Disenfranchised Grief • Being denied the right to grieve • Unable to share their experience, pain or feelings with others. • Their grief is determined to be unworthy. • Feelings unsupported and isolated- friends, family, community, workplace. Designed by Freepik Is grief, depression? • Simple answer- no • Previous DSMs included a bereavement exclusion under major depressive disorder. • Instead of prolonged feelings of emptiness, grief comes in waves • Those who grieve can still feel positive and experience humour • Self-worth and self-esteem are still present • Grief, just like any adverse event can develop into depression. Complicated Grief • Grief is normal • It can be challenging to diagnose as we don’t want to over pathologise a normal experience. • New to the DSM 5 under further research- Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder • Incapacitated by grief and cannot focus on other interests • present every day, cause distress or functional impairment and persist for more than 6 months after bereavement 34 35 36 13 Voluntary Euthanasia David Goodall, 104, decided to end his life through assisted suicide in Switzerland in May, 2018. • Also known as assisted suicide or physicianadministered euthanasia. • Legal in Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Canada. • Victorian parliament legalised voluntary euthanises in May, 2018. Physician Assisted Euthanasia • Doctors supplies lethal drugs for self-administration by the patient. • It is assessed that the patients is ‘voluntary and well-considered;” suffering is ‘lasting and unbearable;’ and ‘no other reasonable solution.” • Two doctors must consult. • Does not require the illness to be terminal (Netherlands). • Netherlands data of PAEs • Of the 49287, only 89 was determined to meet the ‘due care’ requirements. • In 2016, of the 6091 cases, 83% involved terminal or other serious physiological illnesses. 37 38 39 14 Year Mental health Dementia Total 2010 25 25 2011 13 49 62 2012 14 42 56 2013 42 97 139 2014 41 81 122 2015 56 109 165 2016 60 141 201 Concerns over Voluntary Euthanasia • Ethical issue • Does is pressure those who are terminally ill or elderly to die quicker? • Religious hypothesis- Are we going against god? • Slippery slope hypothesis- what can it lead to? Summary points • Contemporary attitudes to death and dying • The dying process and acceptance of death • Choices is important • The effect of bereavement on survivors.