ess topic 8
8.1
population: a group of individuals of the same species occupying a specific area at a given time.
demographic tools
crude birth rate: # of births in a year per 1000 in a population
(# of births/ total pop)1000
factors:
population age structure
women’s right
access to food/clean water
desire to have kids
wealth
crude death rate: # of deaths in a year per 1000 in a population
(# of deaths/ total pop)1000
factors:
age population structure
access to clean water
sanitation
wealth
sanitation
immigration: movement of people into an area
(# of immigrants/ total pop)1000
emigration: movement of people away from an area
(# of emigration/ total pop)1000
total growth
births + immigrants - death - emigrants
natural rate increase
(CBR-CDR)/10
total fertility rate: average # of kids per women of child-bearing age
sum of # of kids per women x length of age group
infant mortality rate
(# of infant deaths (under 1)/ # of live births)1000
doubling time: the amount of time it takes for a country to double its pop
70/NIR (yrs)
historical population growth
the human pop has been growing exponentially
consequences:
increase in waste
increase in pollution
increase in deforestation
increase in ecological footprint
increase in use of resources
population related models
population pyramid
demographic transition model: illustrates the pop transition from an pre-industrial stage with high birth/death rates to an economically advanced stage with low/declining birth/death rates
factors:
gender equality
sanitation
economic factors
policies
stage 1
high birth
high death
population fluctuates/but otherwise is stable and low
no countries
stage 2
high birth
declining death
population increases at a rapid rate
afghanistan
stage 3
declining birth
declining/stabilizing at a low level death
population increasing at a smaller rate
brazil and argentina
stage 4
declining/stabilizing at a low level birth
low/stable death
population stabilizing/fluctuates
uk and us
stage 5
low/stable birth
low/possibly increasing death
declining population
japan and sweden
policies to reduce pop growth
taxes and limited job opportunities
promoting immigration
policy that stimulates economic growth leads to education leads to knowledge of birth control and sex ed
policies to educate and empower women
UN pop projection model
high fertility leads to population increase
low fertility leads to population decrease
advantages:
models are easy to read
allows for future planning
can assist in making decisions about resources
policymakers can see the potential impact
disadvantages:
models are simplified therefore inaccurate
model used could be imperfect
human behavior can change
cannot predict natural disasters
policies as a way to control pop
pro-natalist: in favor of increasing birth rates
RU has had low fertility rates for decades due to aging pop, women preferences, high divorce rates
1936: if you have babies there are rewards
1941-1990: childless tax
anti-natalist
in favor of decreasing birth rates
china’s one child policy
8.2
urban systems: at interconnected system of buildings, microclimate, transport, g/s, power/E, water supply, humans, plants, animals.
urban ecosystems: a community of organisms interacting with their abiotic environment within an urban area.
urban area: a developed area with high density in population, buildings, infrastructure.
inputs
matter: food, water, building materials
people: immigrants, commute
energy: chemical energy, fossil fuels, electricity
information: data, communicative systems
processes
storage: materials kept in tanks, warehouses
transfer: moving resources through infrastructure (pipelines, roads)
transformation: converting resources to usable forms
outputs
waste
pollution: CO2, nitrogen dioxide, heat:noise
goods/services: manufactured products
data/info: digital output
people: emigration
urban efficiency: meet human needs within planetary boundaries and maximizes services like light, transport, etc.
challenges:
hard to define outputs that reflect the full function of the city
real efficiency produces positive impacts to both environment and humans
urban resilience: the ability of urban system to bounce back for disturbances.
diverse/abundant resources:
local/distributed sources of energy, food, etc
robust infrastructure
diverse pop and strong social networks
strong govt
why urban resilience
climate change and social instability requires city to be adaptable and durable
most cities now aren’t resilient enough
urban interconnectedness
urbanization: movement of population from rural to urban areas
push factors:
lack of employment/wage
food scarcity
lack of basic services
lack of resilience
pull factors:
employment/high wage
food abundance
abundant services
resilience
urban sprawl: unrestricted spread of low dense urban and suburban development around the outskirts of cities.
causes:
lower land values
pop growth -> more houses
high income -> afford houses
consequences:
increased use of cars
reduction in natural sites
suburbanization: movement of people from central urban areas with dense pop to outskirts with lower density
reasons:
improvements in transportation
increase in global trade
results:
lead to uncontrolled urban sprawl
reduce biodiversity, lack of green space
impacts of urbanization (urban areas) on ecosystems
loss of forest/agricultural land
water quality and river flows
broken pipes from toilets/kitchen appliances leads to water pollution in urban areas
construction near rivers affects their natural flow
energy consumption
urban use large amount of energy to power domestic, service, and industrial activities
air pollution
more vehicles and industrial activities
resource waste
volume of water consumed
low recycling rates due to small space
urban planning
modern urban planning: brasilia, forest city, sustained city
doughnut economic model lenses: a holistic framework for sustainable and regenerative urban development
local social lenses
focus on human well-being and social equity
cities must provide
affordable housing
clean water and food
education
transportation
job
challenges
marginalized groups often lack access
poor infrastructure
physical barriers
inadequate services
local ecological lens
emphasizes regenerative urban planning and urban ecology
provide ecosystem services
air purification
carbon storage
biodiversity
water filter
cooling and green space
urban planning
regenerative architecture
solar panels/rainwater harvesting
renewable energy
urban farming
horticulture: growing crops in urban an locations
rooftop farm -> nature ubraine paris
aquaculture: aquatic organisms in lakes, rivers, ponds
vertical farming
urban beekeeping
advantages:
production of large amounts of food
income/employment
food security
biophilic designs
green walls and roofs
natural light
urban ecology: relationship of living organisms with their surroundings in urban areas
green space, parks
resilience planning
building on stilts
fall safe grids
global ecological lens
city must operate within planetary boundaries
reduce environmental impact
lower carbon emissions
minimize energy use
control pollution
strategies
use renewable energy
promote public transport
global social lens
urban decisions must consider global social justice
examples
promote social equity through local policies
support refugees
8.3
urban air pollutants
air pollution: introduces particles and other substances into the earth’s atmosphere can cause diseases, etc.
causes
inputs from human activity to atmospheric systems
primary pollutants: directly active at the point of emission -> forest fires, dust, volcanic eruptions
natural and anthropogenic sources
indicator species: organisms used to assess a specific environmental condition
lichens (low sulfur dioxide)and nettles (high phosphorus)
nitrogen oxide
car engines, power plants
sulfur dioxide
volcanic eruptions, power plants, vehicles
carbon monoxide
motor vehicles
particulate matter (PM10 PM2.5)
tiny particles/droplets in the air
construction sites, unpaved roads
secondary pollutants: formed when primary pollutants react with each other
nitrogen dioxide
ammonia
nitric acid
tropospheric ozone
strategies to reduce urban air pollution
improve public transport
infrastructure for cycling
grow trees
green walls
limited car use
pedestrianized town centers
acid rain
caused by combustion of fossil fuels produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide as primary pollutants -> reacts with water in the air
pH
0-14
less than 7 = acidic
more than 7 = alkaline
impact
terrestrial
damage plant foliage thus hindering growth and killing them
make soil toxic
leeching of nutrients
aquatic
harms ph sensitive organisms phytoplanktons
fish eggs don’t hatch, gills damaged
solubilization: toxic metals dissolve in water -> harm organisms and water to drink
humans
release toxic metals to drinking water
cause lung damage
buildings/infrastructure
corrode materials like marble, limestone (liming)
weakens buildings
management strategies for sulfur and nitrogen oxide
altering human behavior
individuals
public transportation
buy local goods
save energy at home
plant trees
businesses
switch to renewable E
use cleaner material
support remote work
govt
set limits to pollution -> carbon tax
invest in public transport
fund cleantech and raise awareness
regulating and reducing
removal of SOx prior to combustion
reduction of SOx emitted during and after combustion
controlling pollution at its source
use tech to reduce pollution where it’s made
catalytic converters (in cars)
turns harmful gases to less harmful ones
scrubbers
restoration
clean up pollution and repair damage -> costly
liming: add limestone to lakes, rivers to raise pH -> costly
lime acidified forests to help neutralize soil acidity
replant forests
for human health
wear masks
ensure access to high quality healthcare