Learning and Memory - Key Concepts

Key Concepts of Learning in Psychology

Introduction to Learning

• Learning seeks to explain the origins and variations of behaviors.
• Principles of learning are fundamental laws that elucidate how behaviors evolve, persist, and can be altered or unlearned.
• Understanding learning is essential for grasping areas such as abnormal psychology, human development, and education.

Defining Learning

• Learning is described as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice.
• Two Types of Behavior:
  1. Operant Behaviors: Actions facilitated by the somatic nervous system (e.g., talking, walking).
  2. Respondent Behaviors: Reflexive reactions governed by the autonomic nervous system (e.g., blinking to a puff of air).

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves learning via association between stimuli, where an unconditioned stimulus (US) triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
  • When a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a US, it can also elicit a conditioned response (CR) through repeated associations.
  • Pavlov’s dog experiment is a classic example, demonstrating how a bell (CS) paired with food (US) led to salivation (UR); over time, the sound alone elicited salivation (CR).
• Essential components of classical conditioning:
  • US: Naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).
  • UR: Reflexive action to a US (e.g., salivation).
  • CS: Initially neutral stimulus that eventually evokes a response (e.g., bell).
  • CR: Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation upon hearing the bell).
• Key Concepts:
  • Acquisition: Learning phase where associations are made.
  • Extinction: The CR diminishes when the CS is presented without the US.
  • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a CR after a pause.
  • Stimulus Generalization: Similar stimuli elicit the CR.
  • Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning focuses on behaviors influenced by their consequences (reinforcements and punishments).
• Principles of Operant Conditioning:
  • Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened; behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
• B.F. Skinner’s contributions:
  • Utilized the “Skinner Box” to demonstrate how behaviors can be reinforced through rewards (reinforcement) or diminished through punishments.
• Types of Consequences:
  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., treat for a lever press).
  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus.
  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence (e.g., a shock).
  • Negative Punishment: Taking away a pleasant stimulus (e.g., no dessert).

Cognitive Aspects of Learning

• Learning isn't solely about behavioral change; cognition plays a crucial role. Memory, attention, and problem-solving activities influence how learning occurs.
• Example: Use of mnemonics enhances memory retention.

Memory Processes

• Three Steps in Memory: 1. Encoding, 2. Storage, 3. Retrieval
  • Encoding: Essential attentional mechanisms that help in the absorption of information into memory.
  • Storage: Maintaining information through consolidation; primarily supported by the hippocampus for declarative memories.
  • Retrieval: Accessing stored information when required; includes free recall, cued recall, and recognition methods.

Theories of Memory Storage

• Memory is not localized to a single area; it spreads across neural networks and is influenced by various brain areas, including the frontal lobe and hippocampus.
• Types of Memory:
  • Declarative Memory: Conscious memories that can be verbally expressed (e.g., facts, events).
  • Procedural Memory: Unconscious memories related to skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).

Forgetting and Memory Failures

• Forgetting can stem from various factors like decay, retrieval failure, or interference.
• Ebbinghaus discovered that memory fades quickly after the initial learning (forgetting curve).
• Seven Sins of Memory (Schacter):
  1. Transience: Loss of accessibility of stored information.
  2. Absent-mindedness: Lack of attention leading to memory lapses.
  3. Blocking: Inaccessible memories (e.g., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon).
  4. Misattribution: Incorrectly recalling the source of a memory.
  5. Suggestibility: Memory distortion from misleading information.
  6. Bias: Distorted recollections influenced by current knowledge.
  7. Persistence: Involuntary recollections, often unwanted.

Practical Applications of Learning Principles

• Applications in education, therapy (e.g., systematic desensitization using classical conditioning), and behavior modification utilize these principles.
• Memory-enhancing techniques such as testing (the testing effect) have been shown to improve retention.
• Cognitive reserve can be built through activities like learning, puzzle-solving, and artistic endeavors to stave off memory decline in aging.

Conclusion

• Understanding the science of learning and memory in psychology provides insight into behavior patterns and practical approaches for improving learning, coping with memory challenges, and enhancing overall cognitive function.