2.1 Congress: The Senate and the House of Representative

- Republicanism: A political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic, where the people hold popular sovereignty through elected representatives.

- Bicameral: A legislative body with two chambers, such as the U.S. Congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

- Senate: 

   - # in Chamber: 100 members (two per state).

   - Representation Based On: Equal representation for each state.

   - Term Length: 6 years, with elections staggered so that one-third of senators are elected every two years.

- House of Representatives:

   - # in Chamber: 435 members.

   - Representation Based On: Population of each state.

   - Term Length: 2 years.

2.2 Structures, Powers, and Functions of Congress

- Leadership Structure: House of Representatives: Led by the Speaker of the House, with Majority and Minority Leaders and Whips.

- Leadership Structure: Senate: Led by the Vice President (President of the Senate), the President Pro Tempore, Majority and Minority Leaders, and Whips.

- Committees:

   - Standing Committee: Permanent committees that handle specific policy areas (e.g., finance, defense).

   - Joint Committee: Committees made up of members from both the House and Senate, usually for conducting investigations or special tasks.

   - Select Committee: Temporary committees created for a specific purpose, such as investigating an issue.

   - Conference Committee: A temporary joint committee formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

   - House Rules Committee* A powerful committee in the House that sets the terms for debate and amendments to bills.

   - Committee of the Whole: The entire House of Representatives acting as a committee to expedite the passage of legislation.

   - Unanimous Consent: An agreement by all members of the Senate to bypass certain formalities and proceed to action more quickly.

- Discharge Petition: A process by which a bill can be forced out of a committee to the House floor for a vote if a majority of House members sign it.

- Filibuster: A tactic in the Senate where a senator speaks at length to delay or block legislative action.

- Cloture: A procedure to end a filibuster, requiring 60 votes in the Senate.

- Non-Germane Rider: An amendment added to a bill that is unrelated to the bill's main topic, often used to pass controversial measures.

- Pork Barrel Spending: Government spending for localized projects to bring money to a representative’s district.

- Log Rolling: The practice of exchanging favors, such as trading votes among legislators to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes.

- Mandatory Spending: Federal spending required by law for specific programs, such as Social Security and Medicare.

- Discretionary Spending: Spending that is subject to annual approval by Congress, such as defense and education funding.

- Deficit Spending: The practice of the government spending more money than it collects in revenue.

 2.3 Congressional Behavior

- Categorical Grant: Federal funding provided to states for a specific purpose with strict guidelines on how it can be used.

- Block Grant: Federal funding provided to states with more flexibility in how it can be used.

- Mandate: A requirement by the federal government that states must follow, often without federal funding.

- Unfunded Mandate: A mandate imposed by the federal government without providing the necessary funds to fulfill it.

- Gridlock: A situation in which there is little to no legislative progress due to political stalemate.

- United Government: A government where the same party controls the presidency and both houses of Congress.

- Divided Government: A government where one party controls the presidency, and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.

- Lame Duck President: A president whose successor has been elected but is still in office during the transition period, often seen as having reduced influence.

- Instructed Delegate Model: A model of representation where representatives act according to the wishes of their constituents.

- Trustee Model: A model of representation where representatives use their own judgment in decision-making.

- Politico Model: A hybrid model where representatives act as delegates on issues important to constituents and as trustees on less salient issues.

- Redistricting: The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries based on population changes.

- Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries to favor one party or group.

   - Partisan Gerrymandering: Redistricting aimed at benefiting a specific political party.

   - Racial Gerrymandering: Redistricting aimed at diluting the electoral power of a particular racial group.

- Baker v. Carr: A 1962 Supreme Court case that established the principle of "one person, one vote," allowing courts to review redistricting cases.

- Shaw v. Reno: A 1993 Supreme Court case that ruled racial gerrymandering unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause.

 Test 1 Concepts

- Articles of Confederation: The first governing document of the U.S., which created a weak national government and was replaced by the Constitution.

- Federalism: A system of government in which power is divided between a national government and state governments.

- Supremacy & Equal Protection Clauses: 

    - Supremacy Clause: Establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land, taking precedence over state laws.

   - Equal Protection Clause: Part of the 14th Amendment, guaranteeing that no state shall deny any person within its jurisdiction equal protection under the law.

- McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): A Supreme Court case that established the federal government’s implied powers and affirmed the supremacy of federal laws over state laws.

- United States v. Lopez (1995): A Supreme Court case that limited Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause, ruling that regulating gun possession near schools was beyond Congress's authority.